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A CHART AND TABLES OF HISTORY 



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INCLUDED WITHIN THE VOLUME. 



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By J. E; WORCESTER, A. A. S., S. H. S. 






BOSTON: 

HILLIARD, GRAY, AND COMPANY. 
1833. 







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Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1833, 

By J. E. Worcester, 

in the Clerk's office of the District Conn of the District of Massachusetts. 



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ADVERTISEMENT. 



The first edition of the Elements of History and of the 
Historical Atlas, was published in 1826 ; and after the 
work had passed through three editions, the book was ste- 
reotyped in 1830; since which various impressions have 
been printed ; and the work has received a large mea- 
sure of the public approbation and patronage. The 
Elements and the Atlas were designed to be used to- 
gether, each being materially incomplete without the 
other. But it is necessary that the books used in most 
of the schools in this country should be furnished at a very 
low price ; and the expense of the Atlas has operated, 
in many cases, as an objection against its introduction ; 
so much so, that the book has, in some instances, been 
used without it. In order, therefore, better to accom- 
modate different classes, the author has been induced to 
put the book in such a state that it may be used, with 
convenience and advantage, without the Atlas. This 
has been accomplished by folding in the volume the 
Chart of (General) History, and also by inserting a 
series of Tables of History, which, in a measure, supply 
the place of the Charts or Tables in the Atlas. 

The Elements of History and the Historical Atlas 
are still published as heretofore, and are to be preferred 
in all cases in which the additional expense is not fel 



IV 



ADVERTISEMENT. 



to be a serious objection. The Atlas is important to 
the student not only in facilitating the study of history, 
but as a work of constant reference. It contains the 
following Charts : 



Chart of (General) History. 
Chart of Mythology. 
Chart of Sacred History. 
Chart of Ancient Chronology. 
Chart of Modern Chronology. 
Chart of Ecclesiastical History. 
Chart of the Sovereigns of Europe. 



Historical Chart of England. 
Historical Chart of France. 
Hist Chart of the German Empire. 
Historical Chart of Spain. 
Chart of American History. 
Chart of Biography. 



PREFACE. 



This volume is famished with a Chart of General 
History, a series of Tables of History, and a copious 
list of Questions, in order to facilitate its use. The 
method of using the work will be found simple and easy. 
After the student has attended to the three short sec- 
tions on the Uses, Sources, and Divisions of History, 
it is recommended that he should study carefully the 
Chart of History with the use of the Description, Illus- 
tration, and Questions, (see page 313.) By this means 
he will have the general outlines of history, with the pe- 
riods of the rise and fall of the principal states and em- 
pires, impressed on his mind ; and by having thus gained 
a comprehensive view of the whole ground, he will be 
prepared to study the particular parts with greater ad- 
vantage. The Tables of Grecian, Roman, French, 
English, and American History are designed to be at- 
tended to in connection with the portions of the volume 
relating to the history of Greece, Rome, France, Eng- 
land, and the United States respectively. 
a 



vi PREFACE. 

The outlines of history may be acquired with incom- 
parably greater facility by the use of Charts and Tables, 
than by the perusal of volumes, independently of such 
aid ; and, what is of great importance, the information, 
thus obtained, will be so impressed on the mind as to be 
much more durable, than if acquired by any other 
method. By means of them one may easily trace the 
rise, progress, revolutions, decline, and fall of states and 
empires ; see what states have been contemporary, and 
what have existed at different periods ; take com- 
prehensive views of the whole ground of history, and 
comparative views of the particular parts ; mark the 
succession of the different dynasties and sovereigns in 
the different kingdoms and empires ; learn the leading 
events of the several reigns and of different ages, and 
observe the periods when the most illustrious persons 
have flourished. 

But for a knowledge of the internal condition and his- 
tory of a state, the particular details of events, with 
their causes and consequences, and the exploits of in- 
dividuals who have figured upon the theatre of the 
world, recourse must be had to other sources of informa- 
tion. In order, therefore, that the study of history may 
be pursued to the best advantage, and a proper attention 
be paid to the connection both of time and of subject, 
the use of charts should be united with that of histo- 
rical narrative. 



PREFACE. vii 

As it would be impossible, in a volume of the size of 
this, to trace a regular series of events relating to all the 
states and empires that have flourished in the world, the 
chief attention of the author has been paid to a few of 
them ; those of which the history is of the greatest im- 
portance, particularly to American students, namely, 
Greece and Rome in ancient history, and France, Eng- 
land, and the United States, in modern. Brief notices, 
however, of various other states have been given, and 
also some short treatises on topics of importance in an 
introduction to the study of history. 

Sacred and Ecclesiastical History has received some 
attention ; and the volume, will be found to afford, in 
addition to the details of general history, much informa- 
tion relating to religion, literature, and the progress of 
society. 

In the preparation of the Elements, the author has 
endeavored to unite so much of reflection with the de- 
tails of facts, as to assist the reader in forming correct 
views of the causes and consequences of events ; and in 
order to render the work more interesting, he has, in 
some instances, introduced short anecdotes and memorable 
observations of distinguished men on important occasions. 

Every one, much conversant with history, must be 
aware of the frequent and often great diversity in the 



viii " PREFACE. 

accounts given of the characters of men and events, even 
by authors of reputation. This diversity is to be attri- 
buted partly to the peculiar principles and prejudices of 
the historians, and partly to the contradictory statements 
in the original sources of history. 

As the line of truth is in so many cases obscure and 
difficult to be discovered, the author cannot hope that 
he has in no instances fallen into error. It has, how- 
ever, been his object to follow the best guides, and to 
give true impressions of the character of persons and 
transactions, so far as they came under review ; but it 
would be impossible for him, were it desirable, to give a 
complete enumeration of his authorities, as information 
has been derived from upwards of two hundred volumes. 



CONTENTS. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Uses of History 1 

Sources of History ......•• 3 

Divisions of History 4 

Egypt 7 

The Phoenicians 9 

Assyria and Babylon . ....... 10 

Persia .12 

Greece. — 

Section I. The country and the People ... 14 

II. The History of Greece divided into Periods 

III. Fabulous Age : Foundation of Cities and Institu 

ticns : Argonautic expedition 

IV. Heroic Age . Trojan War : Return of the Hera 

clidae ........ 

V. Sparta or Lacedaemon : Institutions of Lycurgus 
VI. Athens: Cod. us: Draco: Solon and his Institu 

tions : Pisistratus : Pisistratidae 
VII. Greece invaded by the Persians under Darius 
Battle of Marathon : Miltiades. — Persian Inva 
sion under Xerxes : Themistocles : Aristides 
Battle of Thermopylae : Leonidas : Battles of Sal 
amis, Plataea, and Mycale : Cimon 
VIII. Peloponnesian War : Pericles : Alcibiades : Battle 
of iEgos-Potamos : Lysander : Thirty Tyrants 
Socrates : Retreat of the Ten Thousand : Peace 
of Antalcidas : Thebes : Epaminondas : Battles 
of Leuctra and Mantinea : Agesilaus • • 29 

IX. Philip of Macedon : Sacred War : Battle of Cha> 
ronea : Alexander the Great: Conquest of Per- 
sia : Battles of the Granicus, Issus, and Arbela : 
Alexander's Death ....... 34 

X. Alexander's Successors: Demosthenes: Phocion : 
Demetrius Phalereus : Achaean League: Philo- 
poemen : Subjugation of Macedonia and Greece 40 

XL Grecian Antiquities 44 

Syria under the Seledcid^: 51 

Egypt under the Ptolemies ....... 53. 



15 

17 

18 
19 

21 



23 



CONTENTS. 



Rome. — Page. 

Section I. Roman History : Foundation of Rome : Romulus : 
Numa : Tullus Hostilius : Ancus Martius : Tar- 
quinius Priscus : Servius Tullius : Tarquinius 
Superbus, — expelled, and the regal Government 
abolished ........ 56 

II. The Commonwealth : — Consuls, Collatinus and Bru- 
tus : Valerius : Porsenna : Dictator : The Ple- 
beians encamp on Mons Sacer : Tribunes : Corio- 
lanus : Law of Volero : Cincinnatus : The Twelve 
Tables : Decemvirs : Appius Claudius . . 59 

III. Military Tribunes : Censors : Veii destroyed : Ca- 
millus : Rome burnt by the Gauls : Brennus : 
Manlius : The Samnites : Pvrrhus : Conquest of 
Italy .... ." .... 64 

IV. Carthage and Sicily . .' * . . . . 68 
V. First Punic War ; Regulus : Second Punic War ; 
Hannibal : Conquest of Macedonia : Third Punic 
War; Carthage destroyed : Conquest of Greece 69 

VI. The Gracchi : Jugurtha : Social War : Mithridates : 
Marius and Sylla : Servile War : Conspiracy of 

Catiline 73 

VII. First Triumvirate : Civil War of Csesar and Pom- 
pey : Second Triumvirate : Dissolution of the 
Commonwealth ... . . .76 

VIII. Rome under the Emperors : — The Caesars : Augus- 
tus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, 
Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian 85 

IX. Nerva: Trajan: Adrian: Antoninus Pius : Marcus 

Aurelius Antoninus 91 

X. From Commodus to Constantine ... 93 

XI. From Constantine to the extinction of the Western 

Empire 96 

XII. The Kingdom of the Heruli, of the Goths, and of the 

Lombards. — The Eastern Empire to its extinction 99 
XIII. Roman Antiquities ...... 101 

THE MIDDLE AGES 109 

The Arabs or Saracens 110 

The Feudal System . . • • 115 

The Crusades *. • H? 

Chivalry * 122 



MODERN HISTORY . 

France. — 

Section I. Merovingian Kings : — Charlemagne, &c. 

II. Capetian Kings, — from Hugh Capet to Philip VI 
of Valois ....... 

III. Branch of Valois .—Philip VI:; John II. ; Charles 

V,; Charles VI.; Charles VII.; Louis XI.- 
Charles VIII - 

IV. Louis XII. ; Francis I. ; Henry II. ; Francis II. 

Charles IX. ; Henry III 

V. House of Bourbon : -*r Henry IV. ; Louis XIII. ; 
Louis XIV 



129 
131 
134 

137 
140 
145 



CONTENTS. 



xi 



II 
III. 
IV. 



France. — 

Section VI. Louis XV. ; Louis XVI. : — The Revolution 

VII. The Revolution continued : — Robespierre ; Bona 
parte ; European War : Louis XVIII. : CharlesX 
England. — 

Section I. The History of England : The Roman Conquest 
The Saxon Conquest : The Heptarchy 
From the Foundation of the Monarchy under Eg 

bert to the Norman Conquest 
The JVorm.an Family : — William I the Conqueror 

William II ; Henry I.; Stephen 
Family of Flantagenet : — Henry II.; Richard I. 
John ; Henry III. ; Edward I. ; Edward II. 
Edward III. ; Richard II. 
V. Branch of Lancaster : — Henry IV. ; Henry V. 
Henry VI. ...... 

VI. Branch of York .—Edward IV,; Edward V. ; Rich 

ard III. . . 

House of Tudor .—Henry VII. j Henry VIII. ; Ed- 
ward VI. ; Mary ; Elizabeth . 
The Stuart Family: — James I.; Charles I. : The 
Commonwealth ; Cromwell : — Charles II. ; James 
II. ; William and Mary ; Anne 
House of Brunsicick : — George I.; George II. j 



Page. 
150 



VII. 
VIII. 

IX. 



156 

167 
169 
173 

175 
185 

188 
190 

199 



George III. ; George IV. . . 


215 

219 


Scotland . :■ . 


219 


Germany ........ 


220 




222 




?24 


Netherlands 


225 




226 




226 




227 


Prussia ..,...., 


223 




929 




230 


America. — Discovery and Settlement: — Columbus; Americus; 
Cabot, &c. : Conquest of Mexico and Peru : — 
Cortez, Pizarro, &c 


231 

233 



United States. - 

Section I. Settlement and Early History of the Colonies : — 
Virginia ; New York ; Colonies of New England ; 
Indian Wars; Maryland; Pennsylvania . . 241 
II. Oppressive Measures relating to the Colonies : 
French Wars; Capture of Louisburg ; Expedi- 
tion against New England ; Conquest of Canada 253 
III. Disputes between Great Britain and the Colonies : 
Commencement of Hostilities : Battles of Lex- 
ington and Bunker Hill : Declaration of Indepen- 
dence 260 



XII 



CONTENTS. 



United States. — Page. 

Section IV. Revolutionary War continued : — Battles of Brooklyn, 
White Plains, Trenton, Princeton, Bennington, 
Brandywine, Germantown, Stillwater ; Surren- 
der at Saratoga ; Battles of Monmouth, Rhode 
Island, Camden, Cow-Pens, Guildford, Eutaw 
Springs ; Surrender at Yorktown : — Indepen- 
dence acknowledged ..... 270 
V. Army disbanded : The Constitution formed : Wash- 
ington's Administration : Adams's Administration 281 
VI. Jefferson's Administration : Madison's Administra- 
tion ; War with Great Britain : — Monroe ; Adams ; 
Jackson ........ 286 



ECCLESIASTICAI 

Section I 
II. 
III. 
IV. 



HISTORY — 

From the Birth of Christ to the year 325 
From A. D. 325 to 755 ... 

From A. D. 755 to 1517 
The Reformation, beginning in 1517 

CHRONOLOGY 



Chart of History — Description and Illustration 
Sacred History . . ... 

TABLES.— 

I. Kingdom of Israel and Judah 
II. Kingdom of Israel or the Ten Tribes 

III. Grecian History .... 

IV. Chronology of Grecian Literature 
V. Roman History, No. 1. . . 

VI. Roman History, No 2 

VII. ( hronology of Roman Literature . 
VIII. History of France, No. 1. 
IX. Histo y of France, No. 2. . . . 
X. Chronology of Italian, French, Spanish, 

Literature . . . . . 

XI. History of England, No. 1. . 
XII. History of England, No. 2. 

XIII. Chronology of English Literature 

XIV. Eras in Modern History . . , . 
XV. Ecclesiastical Chronology 

XVI. Chronology of Inventions 

XVII. History of the United States 

XVIII. Events of the Revolutionary War 
XIX. Chronology of Improvements, &c. 

XX. Distinguished Americans 

QUESTIONS adapted to the Use of the Elements of History 347 



German, &c. 



295 
300 
302 
305 

309 

313 

319 

320 
321 
322 
323 
325 
326 
327 
329 
330 

331 
333 
334 
335 
337 
338 
339 
341 
342 
343 
344 



ELEMENTS OF HISTORY. 



USES OF HISTORY. 

1. History is a narrative of past events. The study of it 
is attractive both to the young and the old, to the unreflecting 
and the philosophical mind. It combines amusement of the 
deepest interest; the exercise and improvement of the best 
faculties of man ; and the acquisition of the most important 
species of knowledge. 

2. History, considered merely as 9 source of amusement, 
has great advantages over novels and romances, the peru- 
sal of which too often debilitates the mind by inflaming 
the imagination, and corrupts the heart by infusing what 
may justly be regarded as moral poison. Like works of 
fiction, history serves to amuse the imagination and interest 
the passions, not always, indeed, in an equal degree ; yet 
it is free from the corrupting tendencies which too often be- 
long to novels, and has a great superiority over them, inasmuch 
as it rests on the basis of fact. 

3. The love of novelty and of excitement is natural to 
man ; hence the general taste for history, though its details 
are not unfrequently painful. It affords a melancholy view 
of human nature, governed by the baser passions ; and is, 
to a lamentable extent, little else than a register of human 
crime and calamity, of war and suffering. 

4. A higher use of history is to improve the understand- 
ing and strengthen the judgment. It has been styled 
philosophy teaching by examples; or moral philosophy 
exemplified by the lives and actions of men. It adds to 
our own experience an immense treasure of the experience 
of others, and thereby enables us to enter upon the business 
of life witn the advantage of being, in a manner, acquainted 
with it. 

1 



2 USES OF HISTORY. 

5. It makes us acquainted with human nature, and en- 
ables us to judge how men will act in given circumstances, 
and to trace the connection between cause and effect in 
human affairs. It serves to free the mind from many narrow 
and hurtful prejudices ; to teach us to admire what is 
praiseworthy, wherever it may be found ; and to compare, 
on enlarged and liberal principles, other ages and countries 
with our own. 

6. History may be regarded as the school of politics, 
and, as such, some knowledge of it is indispensable to rulers 
and statesmen ; n is also highly important to every citizen of a 
republic, in order 10 enable him to perform, in a manner hon- 
orable to himself and useful to the community, the duties of a 
freeman. By history we gain our knowledge of the constitu- 
tion of society ; of the reciprocal influence of national character, 
laws, and government; of those causes and circumstances 
which have promoted the rise and prosperity, or the decline 
and fall, of states and empires. 

7. History shows us past ages, triumphs over time, and 
presents to our view the various revolutions which have 
taken place in the world. It furnishes us with the wisdom 
and experience of our ancestors, exhibits their living actions, 
and enables us to profit by their successes and failures. 
It teaches us what has been done for the melioration of 
mankind by the wisdom of Greece and Rome, by modern 
literature and science, by free government, and by true 
religion. 

8. It tends to strengthen the sentiments ©f virtue. In 
its faithful delineations, vice always appears odious, and 
virtue not only desirable and productive of happiness, but 
also favorable to true honor and solid glory. The reader of 
history learns to connect true glory, not with the possession 
of wealth and power, but with the disinterested employment 
of great talents in promoting the good of mankind. 

9. True history has numberless relations and uses as an 
exhibition of the conduct of Divine Providence ; and it presents 
numerous instances in which events, important to the welfare 
of the human race, have been brought about by inconsiderable 
means, contrary to the intentions of those who were the prin- 
cipal agents in them. 

10. A knowledge of history has a tendency to render 
us contented with our condition in life, by the views which 
it exhibits of the instability of human affairs. It teaches us 
that the highest stations are not exempt from severe trials 



SOURCES OF HISTORY. 



that riches and power afford no assurance of happiness ; and 
that the greatest sovereigns have not unfrequentjy been more 
miserable than their meanest subjects. 



SOURCES OF HISTORY. 

Some of- the principal sources of history, independent 
of authentic records, or the narrative of those who were 
contemporary with the events which they relate, are the 
following : — 

1. Oral tradition. From this source Herod'otus derived 
the greater part of his history. It existed before the invention 
of the arts of writing, carving, and painting. 

% Historical poems. These are common among all 
barbarous nations. The Iliad and Od'yssey of Homer were 
regarded by the Greeks as of historical authority ; and they com- 
prise the only history extant of what is called the heroic age 
of Greece. 

3. Visible monuments, as pillars, heaps of stones, and mounds 
of earth, are used to perpetuate historical events among a bar- 
barous people. 

4. Ruins, as those of Egypt, and of the cities of Balbec, 
Palmy'ra, and Persep'olis, are lasting memorials of the power, 
opulence, and taste of the builders. 

5. Giving names to countries, towns, fyc, has been used, in 
all ages, as a method of perpetuating the memory of their 
planters or founders. 

6. Coins and medals are of great use in illustrating his- 
tory, chronology, geography, and mythology, as well as the 
manners and customs of the nations of antiquity. These, 
however, belong to. a people of some refinement. Ancient 
coins have been found buried in the earth at various times, 
in considerable quantities. Vast numbers are now preserved 
belonging to different ages. The most ancient of those of 
which the antiquity can be ascertained, belong to the 5th cen- 
tury before the Christian era. 

7. Inscriptions on marbles. The most celebrated collec- 
tion of marbles, made use of for the illustration of ancient 
history, is that which is now in the possession of the 
University of Oxford, in England, and which was brought 



4 DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. 

from Greece by the earl of Arundel, and from him called the 
Arundelian Marbles. 

8. The most important of these inscriptions is the Chronicle 
of Paros, which contains the chronology of Athens from the 
time of Cecrops, B. C. 1582, to B. C. 264, at which latter 
period it is supposed to have been compiled. The authority 
of this Chronicle has been called in question by a number of 
learned men ; but it has been supported by many others, and 
the chronology of Greece, at present most generally received, 
has been, in a great measure, founded upon it. 



DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. 

1. History, with respect to time, is divided into Ancient 
and Modern. 

% Ancient History is the history of the world from the 
creation to the establishment of the New Empire of the West 
under Charlemagne, A. D. 800. Modern History embraces 
all the time subsequent to that period. 

3. Some historians, however, adopt the Christian era, and 
others the subversion of the Western Empire of the Romans, 
A. D. 476, for the dividing point between Ancient and Modern 
History. 

4. A third division of history, which is often considered as 
distinct from ancient and modern, is that of the Middle Ages. 
This period comprises about a thousand years, from the 5th to 
the 15th century ; or from the subversion of the Western Em- 
pire of the Romans to that of the Eastern Empire. 

5. The Middle Ages embrace the time intervening between 
the extinction of ancient literature, and the appearance of mod- 
ern literature. During this period Europe was sunk in igno- 
rance and barbarism ; hence it is often styled the Dark Ages. 

6. Ancient History is distinguished by the four great mon- 
archies of Assyria or Babylon, Persia, Greece or Macedonia^ 
and Rome. 

7. The Middle Ages are characterized by the origin and 
progress of Mahometanism and the Saracen Empire, the preva- 
lence of the Feudal System, the Crusades, and Chivalry. 

8. Modern History is distinguished by the invention of 
gunpowder, and the consequent change in the mode of war; 



DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. 5 

the discovery of America, and the extension of commerce ; the 
invention of the art of printing, the revival of learning, and the 
diffusion of knowledge ; also by the reformation in religion, and 
a variety of other improvements in the state of society. 

9. History, with regard to the nature of its subjects, is di- 
vided into Sacred and Profane, Ecclesiastical and Civil. 

10. Sacred History is the history contained in the Scrip- 
tures, and it relates chiefly to the Israelites or Jews. Profane 
History is the history of ancient heathen nations, and is found 
chiefly in the writings of the Greeks and Romans. Ecclesias- 
tical History is the history of the church of Christ, or of Chris- 
tianity, from its first promulgation to the present time. Civil 
History is the history of the various nations, states, and em- 
pires, that have appeared in the world, exhibiting a view of 
their wars, revolutions, and changes. 

11. Sacred History goes back to the remotest period of 
time, and commences with an account of the creation of the 
world, which, according to the Hebrew text of the Scriptures, 
took place 4004 years before the Christian era ; according to 
the Samaritan text, 4700 - according to the Septuagint, 5872 ; 
and according to the computation of Dr. Hales, 5411. The 
computation according to the Hebrew text, which gives 4004 
from the creation to the Christian era, and 1656 from the cre- 
ation to the deluge, is the one commonly received in English 
literature, though many suppose that of Dr. Hales to be more 
correct. 

12. The earliest profane historian, whose works are extant, 
is Herod'otus, who is styled the Father of History. His his- 
tory was composed about 445 years B. C, and comprises ev- 
ery thing which he had an opportunity of learning respecting 
the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, lonians, Lydians, Lycians,, 
and Macedonians, from about the year 713 to 479 before the 
Christian era. 

13. With regard, therefore, to all the preceding ages of the 
world, which, reckoning from the creation to the time when 
the narrative of Herod'otus begins, comprise, according to the 
common chronology, nearly 3300 years, there exist no docu- 
ments, with the exception of the Scriptures, really deserving 
the name of history. The accounts which have been given 
of the events of this long series of ages, comprising more than 
half of the time which has elapsed since the origin of the hu- 
man race, were drawn up by writers who lived long after the 
transactions of which they treat, and were compiled from scat* 
tered records fragments, and traditions. 

1 * 



DIVISIONS OF HISTORY, 

14. Our knowledge, of course, of the early history of the 
world, the first settlement of the different portions of it, the 
primitive state of society, and the progress of mankind in the 
remotest ages, is extremely limited. The Scriptures are the 
only authentic source of information on these subjects. The 
facts which they record, though not sufficiently numerous to 
satisfy curiosity, are yet, in the highest degree, interesting 
and important. 

15. Some of the most remarkable events, previous to the 
commencement of profane history, recorded in the Bible, are 
the creation of the world, the fall of man, the deluge, the dis- 
persion of mankind at Babel, the planting of different nations, 
the call of Abraham, the deliverance of the Israelites out of 
Egypt, and their settlement in Canaan. 

1(3. The histories of Greece and Rome are far the best 
known, most interesting, and most important portions of 
ancient profane history. 

17. There is much obscurity hanging over the history of 
the Middle or Dark Ages. 

18. The portions of history best known are those which 
relate to modern civilized nations, during the last three cen- 
turies. 



[The £hart of History, which is found in this volume, 
together with the Description and Illustration, beginning 
with 313th page, may now be advantageously attended to.~\ 



[For some remarks on Sacred History, and Tables of the 
History of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, see pages 
319, 320, and 321.] 



EGYPT. 



EGYPT. 

1. Egypt holds a conspicuous place in history, on account 
of its great antiquity and early attainments in the arts. It 
has been styled the cradle of the sciences, and it claims the 
honor of the invention of the art of writing. At a period 
when Greece and Italy were immersed in barbarism, Egypt 
could boast of arts, learning, and civilization. It was the 
principal source from which the Grecians derived their infor- 
mation ; and, after all its windings and enlargements, we may 
still trace the stream of our knowledge to the banks of the 
Nile. 

2. It is a matter of regret that we have the means of ob- 
taining but little knowledge respecting the ancient history of 
Egypt. The early dynasties of the kingdom are involved in 
obscurity, and history throws little light on the building of its 
most ancient cities, or the construction of those magnificent 
monuments, which show to how high a state of improvement 
the inhabitants, at a remote period, had carried the arts, and 
which still continue to be objects of admiration and astonish- 
ment. 

3. The most celebrated of these works of ancient grandeur 
are Lake Mozris, an immense artificial reservoir ; the Laby- 
rinth, an enormous structure of marble, built under ground ; 
the Catacombs, or Mummy-pits, subterraneous galleries, of 
prodigious extent, appropriated to the reception of the dead, 
and the Pyramids, a, wonder both of the ancient and the 
modern world. 

4. The glory of Thebes, a city of Upper Egypt, famous for 
its hundred gates, the theme and admiration of ancient poets 
and historians, belongs to a period prior to the commence- 
ment of authentic history. It is recorded only in the dim 
lights of poetry and tradition, which might be suspected of 
fable, did not such mighty witnesses to their truth remain. 

5. Before the time of Herod'otus, Memphis had supplanted 
Tliebes, and the Ptol'emies afterwards removed the seat of em- 
pire to Alexandria. Strabo and Diodo'rus described Thebes 
Hnder the name of Dios'polis, and gave such magnificent de- 
scriptions of its monuments, as caused their fidelity to be called 
in question, till the observations of modern travellers proved 
their accounts to have fallen short of the reality. 



8 EGYPT 

6. The place of alphabetic writing was supplied, in ancient 
Egypt, by those rude pictures of visible objects, known by the 
nan e of hieroglyphics, a multitude of which are still found 
sculptured on her walls and temples. 

7. A striking resemblance, with regard to government, re- 
ligion, customs, and character, has been remarked between 
the ancient Egyptians and several oriental nations, particu- 
larly the Chinese. The government was an hereditary mon- 
archy, but the power of the sovereign was checked by the 
influence of the priests. 

8. Every person, not excepting the king, was, immediately 
after his death, subjected to a trial, in order to determine 
whether he was worthy of funeral rites. His whole life passed 
in review, and, if pronounced virtuous, his embalmed body 
was, with various marks of honor, deposited in a sepulchre, 
which was often constructed at great expense ; but, if his life 
had been vicious, or if he had died in debt, he was left un- 
buried, and was supposed to be deprived of future happiness. 

9. Me'nes, supposed to be the same as Miz'raim, the son 
of Ham, is said to have founded the Egyptian monarchy, and 
to have been succeeded in the throne by his posterity, for 
many generations. Afterwards we are told that a race of sov- 
ereigns, styled the Shepherd Kings, governed Egypt for the 
space of two or three centuries. 

10. The ancient Egyptians appear never to have been a 
warlike nation. Sesos'tris is the only king of the country 
whose name stands recorded in history as a great conqueror. 
He is said to have maintained a numerous army, and to have 
conquered a great part of Asia ; but we have little certain 
knowledge of his achievements, or of the extent of his con- 
quests. During his latter years, he is said to have renounced 
a life of warfare, and to have devoted himself to the internal 
improvement of his kingdom. The time of his reign is not 
well ascertained- He has been supposed to be the same as 
Shishak, who took Jerusalem in the reign of Rehoboam ; but 
Sir Isaac Newton supposes him to have been the same as 
Osi'ris, and Mr. Whiston, the Pha'raoh who was drowned 
in the Red sea. 

11. The next sovereign who is particularly distinguished 
in history, was Nechus, or Pha'raoh-Necho. He patronized 
navigation, and fitted out a fleet which sailed round Africa. 
He made war upon the Medes and Babylonians, and defeated 
Josiah king of Judah, in the battle of Megiddo, 



THE PHOENICIANS. <J 

12. In the year B. C. 525, at the commencement of the 
reign of Psammeni'tus, the Persians, under Camby'ses, 
invaded Egypt, and laid siege to Pelu'sium. Taking ad- 
vantage of the Egyptian superstition, the invaders placed 
in front of their army a variety of dogs, cats, and other 
animals, which were held sacred by the besieged ; and 
the Egyptians not daring to injure the sacred animals, the 
Persians entered Pelu'sium without resistance. Soon after 
Camby'ses took Memphis, and reduced Egypt to a province of 
the Persian monarchy. 

13. It was easily wrested from the sway of Persia by Alex- 
ander the Great ; after his death it fell to the share of Ptol'emy; 
and under him, and his successors of the same name, Egypt 
regained her ancient lustre, and rose to a height in science 
and commerce, which no other part of the world then equalled* 



THE PHCENICIANS. 

1. The Phoenicians were among the most remarkable and 
most early civilized nations of antiquity ; yet there is no com- 
plete or regular history of them extant ; occasional notices of 
them, however, are found in the Scriptures and in the Greek 
historians. Sanconi'athon, a Phoenician historian, is supposed 
by some to have flourished about the time of Joshua ; but of his 
work only a few fragments remain ; and the genuineness of even 
these is considered as very doubtful. 

2. The inhabitants of Phoenicia, who are styled Ca'naanites 
in the Scriptures, were a commercial people in the time of 
Abraham. Tyre and Sidon, their principal cities, were two of 
the most ancient we read of in history ; and in remote ages, 
they were the most considerable seats of commerce in the world. 

3. The Phoenicians were the reputed inventors of glass, 
purple, and coinage ; the invention of letters has also been at- 
tributed to them, as well as to the Egyptians : and to Cadmus 
is ascribed the honor of having first carried letters into Greece. 

4. The Phoenicians sent out a number of colonies to Cyprus, 
Rhodes, Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain ; and the foun- 
dation of Carthage is attributed to Dido, sister of Pygma'lion^ 
king of Tyre, with a company of adventurers. Tyre suffered 
two memorable sieges and captures ; the first by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and the second by Alexander the Great. 



10 ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

1. Assyria, the first of the four great empires of antiquity 
derived its name from Ashur, the son of Shem, and the reput' 
ed founder of Nineveh, its chief city. The foundation of Bab- 
ylon is ascribed to Nimrod, who was the grandson of Ham, and 
considered by many the same as the JBelus of profane historians. 
These two cities are supposed to have been founded near the 
same time, and not long after the dispersion of Babel But of 
their history, for many ages after their foundation, very little 
is known with certainty, and the accounts given of them by 
ancient authors are inconsistent with each other. 

2. It is commonly supposed that Assyria and Babylon were 
originally distinct kingdoms, and so continued till Ninus con- 
quered Babylon, and annexed it to the Assyrian empire. Ac- 
cording to Dr. Gillies, however, only one monarchy existed at 
the same time, but divided into three great eras ; the first com- 
mencing with Nimrod, when Babylon was the seat of empire ; 
the second with Ninus, whose capital was Nineveh ; and the 
third beginning after the death of Sardanapa'lus, when Bab- 
ylon again became the metropolis. 

3. Ninus and Semir'amis are the hero and heroine of the 
old Assyrian and Babylonian chronicles ; but the account given 
of ihem appears to partake more of fable than of credible history. 
So great is the uncertainty respecting them, that different his- 
torians and chronologists differ no less than a thousand years 
with regard to the time when they flourished. 

4. Ninus is represented as a great and powerful sovereign, 
and is said to have enlarged and embellished the city of Nineveh. 
After having made extensive conquests, he espoused Semir' amis, 
who succeeded him in the throne. She is described not only 
as surpassing all her sex in wit and beauty, but also as possess- 
ing unbounded ambition, and extraordinary talents for govern- 
ment and war. She enlarged Babylon, and rendered it the 
most magnificent city in the world ; and after a reign of great 
splendor, was succeeded by her son Ninyas. 

5. From the time of Ninyas to the overthrow of the mon- 
archy, under Sardanapa'lus, a period of several centuries, 
little or nothing is known respecting the history of Assyria and 
Babylon. 

6. The name of Sardanapa'lus is almost a proverbial re- 
proach. He is said to have so degraded himself as to adopt 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. XI 

the dress and occupations of a female, and to have passed his 
life in the most disgraceful effeminacy and voluptuousness, in 
the company of his wives and concubines. At length Arbaces, 
governor of Media, and Bel'esis, a priest of Babylon, disgusted 
with his inglorious and shameful life, excited a rebellion against 
him. After sustaining a defeat, Sardanapa'lus, in order to 
avoid falling into the hands of the conquerors, set fire to his 
palace, and burnt himself, together with his women and all 
his treasures. 

7. The empire was then divided into three kingdoms, among 
the three conspirators, Arbaces becoming king of Media, Bel'e- 
sis of Babylon, and Pul or Phul of Assyria. 

8. The successors of Pul were, 1 st, Tig'lath-jji-le'ser, who 
took possession of that part of the kingdom of Israel which was 
east of the Jordan, 2d, Skalinanc'ser, who put an end to the 
kingdom of Israel, and carried the inhabitants captive ; 3d, Sen- 
nach'erib, who laid siege to Jerusalem, in the time of ffezeki'ah, 
but was compelled to return in disgrace, 185,000 men of his 
army being destroyed in a miraculous manner in one night; 
4th, Esarhad'don, who defeated Manas' seh i king of Judah, and 
carried him captive to Babylon. 

9. Not long after the death of Esarhad'don, Nabopolas'sar, 
or Nebuchadncz'zar, having got possession of Babylon, beincr 
assisted by Cyax'ares, king of Media, besieged and destroyed 
Nineveh, put an end to the Assyrian monarchy, and made 
Babylon the seat of empire. 

10. He was succeeded by his son, Nebuchadnezzar II., who 
took Jerusalem, and carried the Jews captive to Babylon. He 
had a long and signal reign, some particulars of which are re- 
corded in the book of Daniel. 

11. During the reign of Belshazzar, who succeeded to the 
throne a few years after the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the Per- 
sians, under Cyras, after a siege of two years, having turned 
the course of the Euphrates, entered the city through the dried 
channel, and took it while the inhabitants were engaged in 
feasting and riot. Belshazzar was slain, and with him ended 
the empire of Babylon. 



PERSIA. 



PERSIA. 

1. Persia was the second of the four great empires of am 
quity. Its histoid, pnor ro Jie reign of Cyrus the Great, is ii 
volved in obscurity and fair e. It was originally called Eltm, 
and the inhabitants Elamites, who were descendants of Shcifii. 
In the earlier ages it was of small extent, but under the reign 
of Cyrus, who was the founder of the great P^* sian empire, it 
became the most powerful and extensive so.ereignty on the 
globe, comprising Persia, Media, Parthia, Assyria or Babylonia, 
Syria, and Asia Minor ; and to these Egypt was added by Cam- 
by 'ses. 

2. For the history of Persia, from the reign of Cyrus to the 
overthrow of the empire by Alexander the Great, we are indebt- 
ed chiefly to the Greeks. In the account of the same period 
by the Persian writers, there is much of fable, and a total neg- 
lect of dates, and the names of the sovereigns are different from 
those given by the Greek historians. The narratives of these 
two classes of writers differ in many material points. The 
Greek authors, though they throw a veil of doubt over their 
records by their exaggerations, especially where the honor of 
their own country is concerned, are, nevertheless, esteemed as 
entitled to superior credit. 

3. Cyrus is described as possessed of great talents, both as 
a warrior anu a sovereign. Having subdued all the nations 
from the iEgae'an sea to the Euphrates, he, together with his 
uncle Cyax'ares II., king of the Medes, took Babylon, and 
conquered the Assyrian empire. Cyax'ares dying soon after, 
Cyrus reigned sole monarch over the united kingdoms, during 
seven years ; in the first of which he published the famous edict 
for the return of the Jews and the rebuilding of Jerusalem. 

4. Herod'otus, Xen'ophon, and Cte'sias, in their accounts 
of the character and history of Cyrus, differ in many particu- 
lars. That of Xen'ophon has been followed by Rollin and 
Dther moderns; yet it is supposed to have been the design of 
Aen'ophon not to exhibit a faithful record of facts, but to de- 
lineate the model of a perfect prince, and a well regulated mon- 
archy. 

5. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Camby'ses, a cruel 
tyrant, whose principal exploit was the conquest of Egypt, 
On his death, Smerdis usurped the crown ; but after a reign 



PERSIA. 13 

of seven months, he was assassinated, and Dari'us was elected 
sovereign. It was the army of the latter that invaded Greece, 
and was defeated at Mar'athon. The history of Persia, from 
this time till the overthrow of the monarchy, is much con- 
nected with that of Greece. 

6. Darius was succeeded by his son Xerxes I., who made 
* ; the second great invasion of Greece, and suffered a series of 

defeats, with immense losses. He left the empire to his son 
Artaxerx' es I, who had a long and peaceful reign. 

7. The other two principal sovereigns were Artaxerx 1 es II , 
during whose reign Xen'ophon made the famous retreat with 
10,000 Greeks, and Dari'us Codom'anus, the last sovereign 
of ancient Persia. The latter was defeated by Alexander, 
and with his death the ancient Persian empire terminated. 



Kings of Ancient Persia. 

[The figures denote the commencement of the reign of each j 



B.C. 






B.C. 




636. 


Cyrus the Great. 


525. 


Xerxes II. 


629. 


Cambyses. 




524. 


Sogdianus. 


622. 


Smerdis. 




523. 


Darius Nothus. 


621. 


Darius. 




504. 


Artaxerxes Mnemon. 


535. 


Xerxes. 




358. 


Artaxerxes III. Ochus 


564. 


Artabanus. 




337. 


Arses. 


564. 


Artaxerxes I. 

2 


Longimanus. 


336. 


Darius Codomanus. 



14 GREECE. 



GREECE. 

SECTION I. 
Greece — the Country and the People. 

1. Greece, the most celebrated country of antiquity, was 
of very inconsiderable extent, scarcely exceeding in size the 
half of the state of New York. It was bounded on all sides 
by the sea, except on the north, where it bordered upon *Ma- 
cedo'nia and Epi'rus. Its general aspect is rugged, but its 
climate is highly propitious ; and no other country of antiquity 
was so favorably situated for holding commerce with other an- 
cient nations. 

2. This country occupies but a speck on the map of the 
world, yet it fills a space in the eye of taste and philosophy, 
incomparably greater than the mightiest empires that have 
overshadowed the earth. The inhabitants were renowned 
above all other ancient nations for genius, learning, and at- 
tainments in the arts ; and they have been the teachers of all 
succeeding ages. Whatever, therefore, relates to Greece, is 
rendered peculiarly interesting by numerous associations. 

3. Greece comprised numerous small, independent states, 
which were more commonly designated by the name of their 
chief city, than by that of the country or province. These 
states differed from each other in their forms of government, 
and the character and manners of the people. But, for their 
mutual defence, they were united in a confederacy by the 
council of the Amphic'tyons, as well as by a common lan- 
guage and religion, and by various public games, to which, in 
time of peace, they all resorted. 

4. The only form of government in Greece, in the early ages, 
appears to have been limited monarchy ; but, in process of 

* Greece, in its most extensive sense, included Macedonia and Epi'rus, 
countries anciently inhabited by a people of similar origin, language, 
and religion, but not recognized by the Greeks as a part of their body, 
principally on account of their less advanced civilization, and because 
they retained the vude monarchy of early ages, while Greece was di- 
vided into small republics. The Greeks also established colonies in 
Thrace, Asia Minor, Italy, Sicily, &c, so that they were widely spread 
over territories beyond the limits of the country which is properly styled 
Greece. 



GREECE. 15 

time, monarchy was abolished, and republican forms were 
everywhere prevalent. 

5. The history of these little republics is calculated to awa- 
ken perpetual and powerful interest. They underwent many 
revolutions, and were frequently engaged in war with each 
other, as well as with foreign nations ; so that their history 
presents scenes continually new and shifting, and abounding 
in those strange and sudden reverses which agitate and in- 
terest the mind of man. 

6. Greece was called by the natives Hellas, and the inhab- 
itants Hel-le'nes ; but, by the poets, they were often called 
Dan'ai, Pelas'gi, Argi'vi, Achi'vi, Acha'i, &,c. The origi- 
nal inhabitants, generally considered as the descendants of 
Javan, the son of Japhet, were extremely barbarous, living in 
caves and huts, feeding upon acorns and berries, and clothing 
themselves with the skins of wild beasts. 

7. In this state of hopeless barbarism was Greece, when it 
was visited by a colony of Egyptians under Cecrops, and 
another of Phoenicians under Cadmus, who have the fame of 
bringing to the country the first rudiments of civilization. 



SECTION II. 
The History of Greece divided into Periods. 

1. The history of Greece may be distinguished into two 
general divisions : — 1st, the period of uncertain history, ex- 
tending from the earliest accounts of the country to the first 
war with Persia, in the year B. C. 490 ; 2d, the period of 
authentic history, extending from the Persian invasion to the 
final subjugation of Greece by the Romans, B. C. 146. 

2. The first period, according to the most generally received 
chronology, reckoning from the foundation of Sic'yon, the 
most ancient kingdom of Greece, comprises the space of about 
1600 years. This long succession of ages is involved in ob- 
scurity and fable. There are no records relating to it that 
really deserve the name of history ; and the accounts which 
have been given of its events were drawn up by writers who 
lived long after the transactions of which they treat, and who 
possessed few materials for authentic history. 

3. This period may be distinguished into four subdivisions, 
which are marked by some peculiar historical features : the 



16 GREECE. 

1st, reaching from the earliest accounts of Greece to the Tro- 
jan war, B. C. 1184, a period which may be termed, by way 
of eminence, the fabulous age : the 2d, extending from the 
expedition against Troy to the death of Homer, a period 
generally called the heroic age, of which the only history is 
contained in the poems of the Il'iad and Od'yssey : the 3d, 
comprising the space of time from the death of Homer to the 
death of Lycurgus, a period which has been denominated the 
era of revolutions, of which scarcely any species of history 
exists : the 4th, reaching from the death of Lycurgus to the 
first invasion of Greece by the Persians, a period which has 
teen styled the era of traditionary history, possessing a con- 
siderable degree of credibility. 

4. The second general division, the period of authentic his- 
tory, extends from the first invasion of Greece by the Persians 
to its final subjugation by the Romans, a period of 344 years. 
The history of this portion is luminous and connected beyond 
that of any other portion of pagan antiquity, having been re- 
corded by writers of the greatest ability, who were contempo- 
rary with the events which they relate, and many of whom 
bore a distinguished part in them. 

5. This period also may be divided into four parts, distin- 
guished rather by political than historical characteristics : the 
1st, reaching from the Persian invasion, B. C. 490, to the 
commencement of the Peloponnesian war, a period of 59 years, 
{he e^a of Grecian unanimity and triumphs : the 2d, ex- 
tending from the beginning of the Peloponnesian war to the 
accession of Philip of Macedon, B. C. 360, a period of 71 
years, the era of civil wars and intestine commotions among the 
states of Greece : the 3d, reaching from the accession of 
Philip to the death of Alexander the Great, B. C. 324, a pe- 
riod of 36 years, distinguished by the entire ascendancy of 
Greece, or rather of Map'edon, over Persia : the 4th, ex- 
tending from the death of Alexander to the final subjugation 
of Greece by the Romans, B. C. 146, a period of 178 years, 
the era of degeneracy , turbulence, and ineffectual struggles for 
independence. During the greater part of this period, the des- 
tinies of Greece were directed by foreign influence, and were 
placed successively under the protection of Macedonia, Egypt,, 
and Rome. 



GREECE. ]7 



SECTION III. 

Fabulous Age : Foundation of Cities and Institutions : 
Argonautic Expedition. 

1. The fabulous age comprises the period of the foundation 
of the principal cities, the commencement of civilization, the 
introduction of letters and the arts, and the establishment of 
the most celebrated institutions of the country. 

2. Sip'y-on, the most ancient city, is said to have been found- 
ed by JEtgi'alus ; Argos, by In'achus, the last of the Titans ; 
Ath'ens, by Ce' crops, an eminent legislator, with a colony from 
Egypt ; Thebes, by Cadmus, a Phoenician, who is said to have 
first introduced letters into Greece ; Cor'inth, by Sis'yphus ; 
Myce'nce, by Pcr'seus ; and Lacedcc'mon, by Lelex. 

3. Some of the memorable events of this period were the 
deluges of Og'y-gcs and Deuca'lion ; the institution of the 
Olym'pic, Isth'mian, Pyth'ian, and Nemean games ; of the 
laws of Minos in Crete, the court of Areop'agus, the Eleusin'- 
ian mysteries, the Oracle of Delphi, and the council of the 
Amphic'tyons. This period also embraces the marvellous ex- 
ploits of Her'cides, The' setts, and other fabulous heroes. 

4. The first great enterprise recorded of the Greeks was the 
Argonautic expedition, the account of which appears to partake 
much more of fable than of history. It was commanded by 
Jason, the son of the king of lol'chos, accompanied by about 
fifty of the most illustrious young men of Greece : among these 
heroes were Her'cules, The' sens, Castor and Pollux, Or'pheus, 
the physician JEscula'pius, and the astronomer Chi'ron. 

5. They sailed from lol'chos, in Thessaly, to Col'chis, on 
the eastern shore of the Euxine sea; and they were called 
Ar'gonauts from their sailing in the ship Argo, which is said 
to have been the first sea vessel ever built. This famous 
voyage, which was probably a piratical expedition, is com- 
monly represented to have been undertaken for the purpose 
of recovering the golden fleece of a ram, which originally be- 
longed to their country. The fleece is pretended to have 
been guarded by bulls that breathed fire, and by a dragon 
that never slept. 

2* 



18 GREECE. 

SECTION I'V. 

The Heroic Age : Trojan War : Return of the Heraclida. 

1. The heroic age has been compared to the age of chiv- 
alry ; and there has been supposed to exist a striking resem- 
blance between the manners and sentiments of the Greeks of 
that period and those of the Gothic nations of Europe in the 
middle ages, except that the latter displayed more generosi- 
ty in war, and more gentleness to the female sex, than the 
former. 

% The history of the Trojan ivar rests on the authority 
of Homer, and forms the subject of his Iliad, the noblest poem 
of antiquity, which presents a lively picture of the Grecian 
character and manners at this early period. 

3. Hel'en, the daughter of Tyn'darus, king of Sparta, was 
reputed the most beautiful woman of her age, and her hand 
was solicited by the most illustrious princes of Greece. Her 
father bound all her suitors, by a solemn oath, that they should 
abide by the choice that Helen should make of one among 
them ; and, should she be stolen from the arms of her hus- 
band, that they would all assist, with their utmost strength, to 
recover her. Menela'us was the favored individual, and, after 
his nuptials with Helen were celebrated, Tyn'darus resigned 
the crown to his son-in-law. 

4. Par''is, the son of Pri'am, king of Troy, a powerful city 
founded by Dar'danus, having adjudged the prize for superior 
beauty to Venus, in preference to Juno and Minerva, was 
promised by her the most beautiful woman of the age for his 
wife. Soon afterward he visited Sparta, and was received 
with every mark of respect by king Menela'us ; but he abused 
the hospitality which was shown him by persuading Helen to 
elope with him to Tro^, and, together with her, carried off a 
considerable treasure. 

5. This act of treachery and ingratitude produced the Tro- 
jan war ; a confederacy was immediately formed by the prin- 
ces of Greece, agreeably to their engagement, to avenge the 
outrage. A fleet of about 1,200 open vessels conveyed an 
army of 100,000 men to the Trojan coast. Agamem'non, king 
of Argos, brother of Menela'us, was chosen commander in 
chief. Some of the other most celebrated princes, who distin- 
guished themselves in this war, were Acliil'les, the bravest of 
the Greeks, Ajax, Menela'us, Ulys'ses, Nestor, and Diome'des* 



GREECE, 19 

6. The Trojans were commanded by Hector, the son of 
Priam, assisted by Par'is, Deiph'obus, JEne'as, and Sarpe'- 
don. After a siege of ten years, the city was taken by strata- 
gem, plundered, and burnt to the ground. The venerable 
king Priam was slain, and his family led into captivity. 

7. About eighty years after the destruction of Troy began 
the civil war of the Heracli'dce, usually called the return of 
the Heracli'dce into Peloponne'sus. 

•8. Her'cules, sovereign of Myce'nae, a city of Peloponne'- 
sus, was banished from his country, with all his family, while 
the crown was seized by At'reus, the son of Pelops. After 
the period of a century, the Heracli'dse, or descendants of 
Her'cules, returned to Peloponne'sus, and, having subdued 
all their enemies, took possession of the country. A part of 
the inhabitants were reduced to slavery ; the rest, being ex- 
pelled, retired to Asia Minor, and possessed themselves of a 
country afterwards called Ionia. 

9. This revolution in Peloponne'sus not only changed the 
inhabitants and government of the country, and established 
new divisions of the Greeks, but checked the progress of the 
arts and civilization. 



SECTION V. 
Sparta or Lacedcemon : Institutions of Lycurgus. 

1. The two leading states of Greece were Athens and Spar- 
ta, the latter distinguished for military valor and discipline, 
the former for literature and the arts. Their different char- 
acters and habits were formed, in a great degree, by the in- 
stitutions of their respective legislators, lycurgus of Sparta, 
and Solon of Athens. 

2. Sparta, or Lacedae'mon, was the capital of Laconia, in 
the southern part of Peloponne'sus. After the return of the 
Heracli'dae, its government was administered by the two sons 
of Aristode'mus, who reigned jointly, and this double monar- 
chy was transmitted to the descendants of each for many 
ages. 

3. Lycurgus, the celebrated Spartan legislator, was the 
brother of one of the kings ; and, on the death of the sovereign, 
he became protector. The government of Sparta being now 
in the greatest disorder, Lycurgus, in whom, on account of 



^0 GREECE. 

his great abilities and integrity, the highest confidence was re- 
posed, was intrusted with the duty of reforming the constitution. 

4. He wrought an entire change in the form of government, 
and in the manners of the people. He instituted a senate of 
28 members, elected from the nobles. The two kings were 
continued, but were nothing more than hereditary and presid- 
ing members of the senate, generals of the army, and high 
priests of the nation. He divided the territory of the republic 
into 39,000 equal shares, among all the free citizens. 

5. Commerce was abolished ; the distinction of dress an- 
nihilated; the use of gold and silver prohibited, and iron money 
substituted in their place. All the citizens, not excepting 
even the kings, were required to eat at the public tables, where 
all luxury and excess were to be avoided, black broth being 
the. principal article of food. v 

6. Every citizen was to be wholly devoted to the service of 
the state, whether in peace or war. Infants, as soon as born, 
were carefully inspected, and those that were well formed ^ 
were delivered to public nurses ; and at the age of seven 
years, they were introduced into the public schools, where 
they were all educated on the same plan. Those that were 
deformed or sickly, were exposed to perish. 

7. Letters were taught for use, but not for ornament ; and 
the Spartans, while they were distinguished as a shrewd and 
sagacious people, were never eminent for learning : and no book 
has been transmitted to modern times written by a genuine 
Spartan. DhTuseness of language and conversation was dis- 
countenanced, and the Lacedaemonians were noted for their 
concise or laconic speech. 

8. The young were taught especially to respect the aged, 
and to cherish an ardent love of their country : they were form- 
ed to a high principle of honor, and to great sensibility to ap- 
plause and to shame. They were early inured to hardship ; 
were accustomed to sleep on rushes, and only supplied with 
plain and scanty food ; but they were encouraged to steal what- 
ever they could, provided they accomplished the theft without 
being detected. 

9. The institutions of Lycurgus were well adapted to im- 
press on the people a character completely artificial, by stim- 
ulating some feelings and principles to excess, and almost 
eradicating others ; but they were not calculated to promote 
either happiness or goodness. The system was, however, ingen- 
iously contrived to render the Spartans a nation of soldiers : 
by them war was considered the great business of life ; and it 



GREECE. 21 

was their highest ambition to be terrible to their enemies. 
The heroic virtues or qualities, such as patriotism, public spirit, 
courage, fortitude, and contempt of danger, suffering, and death, 
were cherished ;' while all the softer virtues and domestic af- 
fections were sacrificed. 

10. Young women, as well as young men, were trained to 
athletic exercises. The manners of the Lacedaemonian women 
were loose and indelicate. They were destitute of the virtues 
which most adorn the female character — modesty, tenderness, 
and sensibility. Their education was calculated to give them 
a masculine energy ; to render them bold, hardy, and courage- 
ous ; and to fill them with admiration of military glory. Mothers 
exulted when their sons fell honorably in battle. " Return 
with your shield, or on your shield," said a Spartan mother to 
her son, when he was going to meet the enemy ; that is, " con- 
quer or die." 

1 1 . The government of Lacedae'mon acquired solidity , while 
the other states were torn by internal dissensions. For the 
long period of 500 years, the institutions of Lycurgus continu- 
ed in force ; the power and influence of Sparta were felt through- 
out Greece ; and for a considerable part of that period, her glory 
eclipsed that of the other states. 

12. But in process of time, the severe manners of her war- 
riors were relaxed; and during the administration of some of 
her later kings, changes were introduced into the laws and 
institutions, particularly in the time of Lysan'der, whose con- 
quests filled his country with wealth, and opened the sources 
of luxury and avarice. 



SECTION VI. 

Athens: Codrus: Draco: Solon and his Institutions : Pisis- 
tratus: Pisistratidcs. 

1. Athens, the capital of At'tica, was the most celebrated 
city of Greece. It was distinguished for its commerce, wealth, 
and magnificence ; was the chief seat of learning and the arts : 
and it was the birthplace of many illustrious men. 

% The last king of Ath'ens was Co'drus, who, in the war 
with the Heracli'dae, sacrificed himself for the good of his coun- 
try. After his death, the regal government was abolished, 
and the state was governed by magistrates, styled archons 
The office was at first for life ; afterward reduced to a period 



£2 GREECE. 

of ten years ; at last it became annual, and was divided among 
nine persons. 

3. The first code of written laws which the Athenians pos- 
sessed, was prepared by Draco, a man of stern and rigid tem- 
per. These laws punished all crimes with death ; and, on 
account of their sanguinary character, are said to have been 
written in blood. Draco, being asked why he was so severe 
in his punishments, replied, that " the smallest crimes deserv- 
ed death, and he had no higher punishment for the greatest." 
But the great severity of these laws prevented their being fully 
executed. 

4. The celebrated Solon, one of the seven wise men of 
Greece, being raised to the archonship, was intrusted with the 
care of framing for his country a new constitution, and a new 
system of laws. His disposition was mild and temporizing; 
and he did not, like Lycurgus, endeavor to operate a total 
change in the manners of his countrymen, but attempted to 
moderate their dissensions, restrain their passions, and open 
a fair field to the growth and exercise of ability and virtue ; 
and his system, though less original and artificial, was more 
rational and judicious. Of his laws, he said, " If they are not 
the best possible, they are the best the Athenians are capable of 
receiving." 

5. Solon vested the supreme power in an assembly of the 
people, composed of the freemen whose age exceeded 30 years. 
By them all laws were enacted ; every public measure deter- 
mined ; all appointments made ; and to them an appeal lay 
from all courts of justice. He instituted a senate or council 
of 400, afterward increased to 500 ; restored the Areop'agus ; 
and divided the people into four classes, according to their 
wealth. 

6. Commerce and agriculture were encouraged ; industry 
and economy enforced ; ingratitude, disobedience to parents, 
and opprobrious language, punished. The father who had 
taught his son no trade, could not claim a support from him 
in his old age. The body of laws which Solon established has 
been so highly esteemed, that it has formed the basis of many 
subsequent systems of legislation. 

7. The different laws of Athens and Sparta produced, in 
process of time, a corresponding difference in the character 
and manners of the people. At Athens, the arts were in the 
highest esteem ; at Sparta, they were despised. At Athens, 
peace was the natural state of the republic, and the refined 
enjoyment of life the aim of the people. At Sparta, war was 



GREECE. 23 

the great business of life, and no amusements were practised 
except such as were military or athletic. An Athenian was 
characterized by luxury ; a Spartan, by frugality : the virtues 
of the latter were more severe ; those of the former more agree- 
able. They were both, however, equally jealous of liberty, and 
equally brave in war. 

8. Before the death of Solon, Pisis'tratus, a citizen of great 
wealth and eloquence, by courting popularity in various ways, 
found means to raise himself to the sovereign power, which 
he and his sons retained for 50 years. He exercised a munifi- 
cent and splendid dominion, encouraged the arts and sciences, 
and is said to have founded the first public library known to 
the world, and first collected the poems of Homer into one 
volume, which before were merely repeated in detached portions. 
. 9. Pisis'tratus transmitted the sovereignty to his sons Hip'pi- 
as and Hippar'chus, called the Pisistrat'idce. They governed, 
for some time, with wisdom and moderation ; but at length an 
abuse of power caused a conspiracy to be formed against them, 
and their government was overthrown by Harmo'dius and 
Aristogi'ton. Hippar'chus was slain ; and Hippias not long 
after fled to Dari'us, king of Persia, who was then meditating 
the conquest of Greece ; and he was afterward killed in the 
battle of Mar'athon, fighting against his countrymen. 



SECTION VII. 

Greece invaded by the Persians under Darius: Battle of 
Marathon : Miltiades. Persian Invasion under Xerxes : 
Themistocles : Aristides : Battle of Thermopylae : Leoni- 
das : Battles of Salamis, Platcea, and Mycale : Cimon. — 
From B. C. 490 to 431. 

1, The period from the first Persian invasion to the begin- 
ning of the Peloponnesian war, is esteemed the most glorious 
age of Greece. The series of victories which the inhabitants 
obtained over the Persians, are the most splendid recorded in 
history. 

2. Persia, at this period, was far the most powerful empire 
in the world, embracing the territories included in modern 
Persia, Turkey in Asia, Egypt, a great part of Tartary, and 
part of Arabia. The Greek colonies in Asia Minor were sub- 



21 GREECE. 

ject to the Persians, who had likewise made a conquest o/ 
Thrace : Macedonia had also acknowledged subjection ; so 
that the Persian dominion extended over a large portion of the 
Grecian people, and even bordered on the country of Greece. 

3. The Asiatic Greeks made an attempt to throw off the 
Persian yoke, and were assisted by the Athenians. Darius, 
king of Persia, having reduced his revolted subjects to sub- 
misr-ion, formed a determination, in consequence of the course 
taken by the Athenians, to make an entire conquest of Greece ; 
and in this design he was encouraged and assisted by the ex- 
iled tyrant Hippias. 

4. Dari'us despatched heralds to each of the Grecian states, 
demanding earth and water, as an acknowledgment of his su- 
premacy. Thebes, together with a number of the other cities, 
and most of the islands, submitted ; but the Athenians and 
Lacedaemonians were so indignant, that, forgetting the law^s 
of nations and of humanity, they put the heralds to death with 
the utmost ignominy. At one place they were thrown into a 
pit, at the other into a well, and told there to take their earth 
and water. 

5. Dari'us began his hostile attack both by sea and land. 
The first Persian fleet, under the command of Mardo'nius, 
was wrecked in a storm, in doubling the promontory of A'thos y 
with a loss of no less than 300 vessels ; a second, of 600 sail, 
ravaged the Grecian islands; while an immense army, consist- 
ing, according to the lowest statements of ancient historians, 
of 110,000 men, commanded by Artapher'nes and Da'tis, in- 
vaded Attica. 

6. This formidable host was met on the narrow plain of 
Mar'athon by the Athenian army, greatly inferior in number 
(by some stated at only 10,000), under the command of the 
celebrated Milti'ades, who, availing himself of an advantageous 
position of the ground, gained a decisive victory, and drove 
the routed invaders to their ships. The loss of the Persians 
was 6,300 ; that of the Athenians, only 192. 

7. Miltiades, by this victory, rose to the height of popularity 
and influence, which, however, he lost not long afterwards by 
a failure in an attack on the island of Pa'ros. On his return 
from this expedition, he was accused of treason, and, though 
absolved from the capital charge, yet he was condemned to 
pay a fine of 50 talents (about 50,000 dollars). In conse- 
quence of this, he was thrown into prison, and died in a few 
days of the wounds which he received at Paros ; but the fine 
was paid by his son Cimon. 



GREECE. oc 

8. The Athenians were, at this time, divided into two par- 
ties, one of which favored an aristocratical, and the other a 
democratical, form of government. The two leaders of these 
parties were Themis' tocles and Aristi'des, both of whom had 
distinguished themselves as commanders in the battle of Mar'- 
athon ; Aristi'des being the advocate of aristocracy, and The- 
mistocles of democracy. 

9. Aristi'des, who, on account of his stern integrity, receiv- 
ed the surname of the Just, was, through the intrigues of his 
great rival, banished for ten years by the Os'tracism. While 
the people were giving their votes for his exile, it happened 
that a citizen, who was unable to write, and did not know 
him personally, brought his shell to him, and requested that 
he would write the name of Aristi'des upon it. " Why, what 
harm has Aristi'des ever done you ?" said he ; " No harm at 
all," answered the citizen, " but I cannot bear to hear him 
continually called the Just." Aristi'des smiled, and, taking 
the shell, wrote his name upon it, and quietly went into ban- 
ishment ; but he was recalled soon after the renewal of the 
war. 

10. The death of Dari'us, and other circumstances, occa- 
sioned the discontinuance of the war for several years ; but 
Xerxes, the young Persian monarch, having ascended the 
throne, was eager to punish Athens, and subdue Greece. 
Having spent four years in preparation, he collected an army 
greater than the world ever saw, either before or since. Ac- 
cording to Herod'otus, the whole number of fighting men, in 
the army and fleet, exceeded 2,000,000 ; and, including the 
retinue of sutlers, slaves, and women, the whole multitude is 
said to have exceeded 5,000,000. 

11. The fleet consisted of upwards of 1,200 galleys of war, 
besides a greater number of transports and smaller vessels. 
A canal, navigable for the largest galleys, was formed across 
the isthmus which joins mount Athos to the continent : and, 
for the conveyance of the army, two bridges of boats were ex- 
tended across the Heliespont, at a point where the width is 
seven furlongs. 

12. Xerxes, having taken a station on an eminence, in or- 
der to gratify his vanity by viewing the vast assemblage which 
he had collected — the earth covered with his troops, and the 
sea with his vessels — is said to have been suddenly so much 
affected as to shed tears, upon reflecting that, in the space of 
one hundred years, not one of the many thousands would be 
alive. 

3 



26 GREECE. 

13. The Persian army advanced directly towards Athens, 
and this city fortunately possessed, in Themis' tocles, a leader 
of extraordinary talents, peculiarly fitted for conducting the 
arduous contest. Most of the other states united in assisting 
Athens in repelling the invaders, Sparta taking the lead ; but 
some of them submitted to the Persians. 

14. Leon'idas, king of Sparta, with a small army, undertook 
the defence of Thermop'ylm, a narrow mountain pass or defile 
on the coast, connecting Thessaly and Phocis. Xerxes, hav- 
ing approached this place, sent a herald to Leon'idas, com- 
manding him to deliver up his arms, to whom the Spartan 
replied, with laconic brevity, " Come and take them." For 
two days the Persians strove to force their way, but were 
repulsed with great slaughter ; but having, at length, discov- 
ered a by-path over the mountains, the defence of the pass 
became impossible. 

15. Leon'idas, foreseeing certain destruction, resolved, in 
obedience to a law of Sparta, which forbade its soldiers, in 
any case, to flee from an enemy, to devote his life to the honor 
and service of his country ; and, animated by his example, 
the 300 Spartans under his command determined with him to 
abide the event. With the fury of men resolved to sell their 
lives at the dearest rate, they fell upon the Persian camp, and 
were all cut off, after having made a dreadful havoc of the 
enemy. Two only of the Spartans, these having been acci- 
dentally absent, survived the battle. A monument was erect- 
ed on the spot, bearing this inscription, written by Simon'- 
ides : " O stranger ! tell it at Lacedaemon, that we died here 
in obedience to her laws." 

16. The Persians, having forced the pass of Thermopylae, 
poured down upon Attica, ravaging the country with fire and 
sword. The inhabitants of Athens, after conveying their 
women and children to the islands for security, betook them- 
selves to the fleet, abandoning the city, which the Persians 
pillaged and burnt. 

17. Preparations were now made for a great naval battle. 
The Persian fleet consisted of 1,200 galleys ; that of the 
Greeks of 300, and was commanded by Themis' tocles and 
Aristi'des. An engagement took place in the straits of Sal'- 
amis, where it was impossible for the Persians to bring their 
numerous ships regularly into action, and they were defeated 
with immense loss. The king, who had seated himself on an 
eminence to witness the battle, terrified at the result, retreated^, 
with a part of his army, to his own dominions. 



GREECE. 27 

18. Xerxes left Mardo'nius, with 300,000 men, to complete 
the conquest of Greece in the following summer. This army, 
which was joined by many Grecian auxiliaries, was met at 
Plata' a, early in the next season, by the combined forces of 
Athens and LacedaVmon, consisting of 110,000 men, under 
the command of Aristi'des and Pausa'nias, and was defeated 
with tremendous slaughter, Mardo'nius being killed, and the 
most of his men being slain in the battle and the subsequent 
massacre. 

19. On the same day of the great victory of Platae'a, the 
Greeks, under Leotych'ides the Lacedeemoman, and Xanthip'- 
pus the Athenian, engaged and destroyed the Persian fleet 
at the promontory of Myc'a-le, near Ephesus. The Persian 
army was now completely destroyed. Xerxes, having been 
entirely frustrated in all his mad schemes, was soon after as- 
sassinated, and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes Lon- 
gim'anus. i 

20. The Persian war, however, was not yet terminated 
The Greeks, in their turn, became the assailants and invaders 
They undertook to defend the Ionians, who had thrown oli 
the Persian yoke. The Spartans, commanded by Pausa'nias, 
and the Athenians, by Aristi'des and Ci'mon, advanced to the 
island of Cyprus, which they took, and set free ; and, having 
taken and plundered the city of Byzan'tium, they returned 
with immense booty. 

21. Pausa'nias, who had borne a distinguished command 
in this war, being at length intoxicated with glory and power, 
aspired to hold, under Persia, the dominion of Greece, and 
in a letter to Xerxes, promised to effect the subjugation of the 
country, on condition of his receiving his daughter in mar- 
riage. Being convicted by the ephori of this treason, he took 
refuge in the temple of Minerva, where, the sanctity of the 
place securing him from violence, he was doomed to perish 
by hunger. 

22. Themis' tocles, the great Athenian commander, was ac- 
cused of participating in the treason of Pausanias, and was ban- 
ished by the ostracism. Proceeding to Asia, he wrote a letter 
to king Artaxerxes, in which he said, " I, Themistocles, come 
to thee, who have done thy house most ill of all the Greeks, 
while I was of necessity repelling the invasion of thy father, 
but yet more good, when I was in safety, and his return was 
endangered." He was permitted to live in great splendor, in 
Persia, and there died in exile, leaving an almost unrivalled 
reputation as a statesman and warrior ; but, if to his great 



28 GREECE. 

talents he had joined an unquestionable integrity, his fame 
would have been purer. 

23. After the banishment of Themistocles, the affairs of 
Athens were, for a short, time, directed by Aristi'des ; and, 
upon his death, the whole power came into the hands of Ci'- 
mon, the son of Milti'ades, one of the most illustrious states- 
men and warriors that Greece ever produced. 

24. Cimon maintained the political influence and military 
power of Athens, conducted the war with great success, and 
gained two great victories over the Persians on the same day, 
one by sea, and the other by land, near the mouth of the 
Eurym'edon, in Asia Minor. 

25. A powerful party at length arose against Cimon, and 
procured his banishment by the ostracism, and Per'icles, a 
young man of noble birth, great talents, and extraordinary 
eloquence, succeeded him in authority. 

26. But, after a banishment of five years, Cimon was re- 
called, restored to the command of the army, gained further 
important victories over the Persians, and finally died of a 
wound which he received at the siege of Citium, in Cyprus. 

27. The Persian war, which had lasted, with little inter- 
mission, about fifty years, was now brought to a termination. 
Artaxerxes, finding his strength, both by sea and land, broken, 
sued for peace, which was granted on condition that he should 
give freedom to all the Grecian colonies in Asia Minor, and 
that the Persian fleets should be excluded from the Grecian 
seas. 

28. After the death of Cimon, his brother-in-law, Thucyd'- 
ides, became the competitor of Per'icles for popular favor and 
authority. A war of eloquence ensued, and Thucydides, be- 
ing worsted, was banished by the ostracism, and the lead of 
Pericles was, from this time till his death, a period of about 
twenty years, but little disputed. 

29. He governed Athens with almost arbitrary sway, adorn- 
ed the city with master-pieces of architecture, sculpture, and 
painting, patronized the arts and sciences, celebrated splendid 
games and festivals, and his administration formed an era of 
great internal splendor and magnificence ; but he exhausted 
the public revenue, and corrupted the manners of the people. 

30. The time of the Persian war was the period of the 
highest military glory of the Greeks, and they owed their 
prosperity to their union. But, after this war had ceased, 
this union was dissolved, and the jealousies and ambitious 
views 3f the rival states were again revived. Athens had beexn 



GREECE. 29 

rebuilt, and surrounded with a strong wall. But to this Sparta 
had meanly objected, and Athens saw with pleasure the de- 
population of Sparta by an earthquake, in which about 20,000 
lives were lost. Sparta also suffered greatly about this time 
by the insurrection of the Helots, or slaves. 

31. Although the Athenians were apparently the greatest 
sufferers by the invasion, their city being burnt, and their 
country laid waste, yet they derived the greatest benefits from 
its effects. In consequence of their naval superiority, and the 
unrivalled talents of their commanders, Milti'ades, Themis 1 - 
tocles, Aristi'des, and Ci'mon, they reached the summit of 
political influence and military power, and attained that su- 
premacy in Greece which the Lacedaemonians had hitherto 
enjoyed. 

32. The politics of Greece, for a considerable time after 
the Persian war, turned upon the rivalry between the two 
leading republics, Athens and Lacedaemon. The former was 
powerful by sea, the latter by land. Athens was the patroness 
of democracy, Lacedaemon of aristocracy. It was customary 
for the weaker states, for their security, to ally themselves 
with one of the two leading ones ; and, in most of them, there 
were two parties in continual contest, the democrats and the 
aristocrats : the former naturally adhered to Athens ; the latter 
to Sparta. 

33. From this period the martial and patriotic spirit began 
to decline. An acquaintance with Asia, and an importation 
of her wealth, introduced a relish for Asiatic manners and 
luxuries. With the Athenians, however, this luxurious spirit 
was under the guidance of taste and genius, and it led to the 
cultivation of the fine arts, which, during the age of Per'icles, 
were in the most flourishing state. 



SECTION VIII. 

Peloponnesian War : Pericles : Alcibiades : Battle of 
JEgos-Potamos : Lysander : Thirty Tyrants : Socrates : 
Retreat of the 10,000 : Peace of Antalcidas : Thebes : 
Epaminondas : Patties of Leuctra and Mantinea : Agesi- 
laus.—From B. C. 431 to 360. 

1. In the latter part of the administration of Per'icles, com- 
menced the Peloponnesian War, which grew out of the long- 



30 GREECE. 

continued rivalship between Athens and Sparta, and was the 
most important and celebrated war ever carried on by the 
Grecian states with each other. 

2. This contest partook, in a great degree, of the nature of 
a civil war ; and though the time of its continuance, the age 
of Soc'rates himself, was an era characterized by the high per- 
fection to which the arts, philosophy, and refinement had been 
brought, yet it was carried on in a spirit of savage ferocity, 
rarely exemplified among civilized nations ; a boundless scope 
was given to ambition and party rage; all the ties of nature 
were trampled upon, and Greece exhibited, during this period, 
a perpetual scene of conflict and calamity. 

3 The Athenians, having assisted the inhabitants of Cor- 
cy'ra against the Corinthians, were accused by the latter of 
having thereby violated the treaty of the confederated states of 
Peloponne'sus, and an appeal to arms was immediately resolv- 
ed on. 

4. Sparta took the lead against Athens, and was joined by 
all the Peloponnesian states, except Argos, which remained 
neutral ; and in Northern Greece, by the Megarians, Boeotians, 
Locnans, Phocians, &c. Athens had few allies ; the principal 
were the Thessalians, Acarnanians, and several islands. The 
Peloponnesian forces, commanded by the Spartan king, Ar- 
chid'amus, amounted to 60,000 ; while the army of the Athe- 
nians did not exceed 32,000 ; but the navy of the latter was 
much the superior. 

5. In the first year of the war, the Lacedaemonians ravaged 
Attica, and laid siege to Athens ; in the second year, the city 
was visited by a dreadful plague, which swept away multitudes ; 
and among its victims was Pericles, who died the third year 
of the war, and at a time when his services were most wanted. 
The war, however, was not arrested by this awful calamity, 
but continued to rage for several years in a similar manner, 
and with nearly equal losses on both sides. 

6. After the death of Per'icles, Ckon, who raised himself 
into power by flattering the worst passions of his countrymen, 
had, for a time, the direction of the Athenian councils ; but 
he was slain at Amphip'olis, in a battle with Bras'idas the Spar- 
tan general, who was also mortally wounded. After the death 
of Cleon, by means of the influence of Ni'cias. the leader of the 
aristocratic and pacific party, a treaty of peace was concluded 
between Athens and Sparta. 

V. But the war was again soon renewed through the influence 
rvf Alcihiades, who now took the lead in the government of 



GREECE. 31 

Athens, and who was one of the most accomplished orators and 
generals of his age ; but whose total want of principle rendered 
his talents ruinous both to himself and his country. 

8. An expedition was sent against the island of Sicily, un- 
der the command of Alcibi'adts and Ni'cias ; but the former 
was accused of misconduct and recalled, and the latter totally 
defeated and slain. Alcibiades afterward again took the com- 
mand of the army of Athens, and gained important advantages; 
but he at length fell into disgrace, and was banished ; and the 
chief command of the Athenian army was given to Canon. 

9. But Lysan'der, the ablest of the Lacedaemonian gener- 
als, having succeeded to the command, utterly defeated the 
Athenian fleet at jE'gos-Pot'amos on the Hellespont, which 
reduced Athens to the last extremity. The Laced asm on ians 
blockaded the city by land and sea, and its reduction was left 
to the sure operation of famine. 

10. The Athenians, anxious to avoid utter extermination, 
were ready to accept almost any terms of peace. They were 
spared on condition that they should demolish their port, with 
all their fortifications, limit their fleet to 12 ships, and in future 
undertake no military enterprise, except under the command 
of the Lacedaemonians. Thus the Peloponnesian war termi- 
nated by the humiliating submission of Athens, and by render- 
ing Lacedae'mon the leading power in Greece. 

11. Lysan'der, after the reduction of Athens, abolished the 
popular government, and substituted in its place an oligarchy 
consisting of 30 magistrates, whose power was absolute, and 
who, from their atrocious acts of cruelty, where styled the 
Thirty Tyrants. In the space of eight months, 1,500 citizens 
were sacrificed to their avarice or vengeance. At length 
Thrasybu'lus, at the head of a band of patriots, drove the ty- 
rants from the seat of their abused power, and restored the 
democratical form of government. 

12. But pure democracy was far from being any security, at 
Athens, against acts of tyranny and oppression, even in the 
most enlightened age of the republic. The Athenians were 
characterized as fickle and capricious ; and in some of their 
proceedings, they were as unjust and cruel as the most law- 
less despots. 

13. The name of Soc'rates is at once the glory and the 
reproach of Athens. This illustrious philosopher, who, on 
account of his high moral views, is the boast of the pagan 
world, and who attempted to introduce among his country- 
men worthier sentiments of religion, and a better understand- 



$2 GREECE. 

ing of the duties of life, was accused of corrupting the youth, 
and condemned by the assembly of Athens to die by poison. 

14. During his imprisonment, which lasted thirty days, he 
conducted himself with the greatest dignity ; refused to escape 
when opportunity offered ; conversed with his friends on top* 
ics of moral philosophy, particularly the immortality of the 
soul, and, when the appointed time arrived, drank the fatal cup 
of hemlock, and died with the greatest composure. 

15. The philosophy of Soc'rates, which forms an important 
epoch in the history of the human mind, was wholly promul- 
gated in conversation, not in writing ; but his doctrines and 
character have been handed down to us by two of his most 
gifted pupils, Plato and Xenophon. He turned all the powers 
of his mind against the atheists, materialists, and skeptics. 
He attended but little to physical science ; he ridiculed the 
metaphysical speculations of his predecessors ; and introduced 
moral philosophy, by teaching mankind to govern their pas- 
sions, and to consider their actions and their duties. From 
this it was said of him, that he drew down philosophy from 
heaven to earth. 

16. About the end of the Peloponnesian war, the death of Da- 
rius left the throne of Persia to his son Artaxerxes II ; but his 
brother Cyrus attempted to dethrone him, and for this purpose 
he employed upwards of 10,000 Grecian mercenaries ; and 
after the battle of Cunaxa, near Babylon, Cyrus, and also the 
Grecian commander, were slain. The remainder of the Gre- 
cian army, under the command of Xen'ophon, made a retreat, 
in which they encountered incredible difficulties and dangers, 
in traversing an enemy's country of 1,600 miles in extent, 
from Babylon to the shores of the Euxine. 

17. This celebrated return of the Greeks, usually called 
the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, is beautifully described by 
Xen'ophon, and is considered one of the most extraordinary 
exploits in military history ; but it is to be regretted that the pu- 
pil and biographer of Socrates should have gathered his laurels 
in so vile a trade as that of a mere hireling military adventurer. 

18. The Greek cities of Asia having taken part with 
Cyrus, the Spartans, under their king Agesila'us, engaged in 
their defence, and thus became involved in the war with the 
Persians. But the king of Persia, by means of bribes, induc- 
ed Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and other Grecian states, jealous 
of the Lacedaemonians, to join in a league against them. Ages- 
ila'us vas obliged to return from Asia Minor to protect his 



GREECE. 33 

own country ; and he defeated the confederates at Corone'a; 
but the Spartan fleet was soon after defeated by the Athenians 
under Conon near Cnidos. 

19. After various vicissitudes, all parties became weary of 
the war, and a treaty of peace was concluded, called the peace 
of Antal'cidas, from the Lacedaemonian who negotiated it. 
The conditions were, that all the Grecian cities of Asia should 
belong to Persia, and that all the others should be completely 
independent, except that the islands of Lemnos, Scyros, and 
Imbros, should remain under the dominion of Athens. 

20. While Athens and Sparta had been for some time de- 
clining, Thebes, emerging from obscurity, rose, for a short 
period, to a degree of splendor superior to that of all the other 
states. The Spartans, jealous of its rising greatness, took ad- 
vantage of some internal dissensions, and seized upon its cita- 
del; but it was recovered, and the independence of Thebes was 
again restored by the efforts of Pelop'idas and Epaminon' das 
two famous Thebans, admired for their talents and exploits, and 
for their faithful friendship for each other. 

21. A war between the two states ensued ; and the Theban 
army of 6,000 men, commanded by Epaminon 1 das and 
Pelop'idas, gained the memorable battle of Leuc'tra. In this 
battle, the Thebans lost only 300 men, while the Spartans lost 
4,000, together with their king Cleom'brotus ; and it was with 
mortification and astonishment that they saw themselves defeat- 
ed by numbers greatly inferior, a thing unknown for ages. 

22. The victorious Thebans, headed by Epaminon' das, and 
joined by many of the Grecian states, entered the territories 
of Lacedaemon, and overran all Laconia with fire and sword, 
to the very suburbs of the capital. This country had not been 
ravaged by a hostile army for 6i)0 years ; and the boast of the 
inhabitants, " that never had the women of Sparta beheld the 
smoke of an enemy's camp," was now done away. 

23. The Theban commander, having completely humbled 
the power of Sparta, returned to Thebes with his victorious 
army : not long after, the war being renewed, he gained an- 
other great victory over the Lacedaemonians, commanded by 
Agesila'us, and assisted by the Athenians, at Mantine'a ; but he 
fell mortally wounded in the moment of victory. 

24. Epaminon' das is regarded as one of the greatest char- 
acters of Greece, equally eminent as a philosopher, a states- 
man, a general, and a citizen. He raised his country to its 
highest eminence 'n military renown, and its power and splen- 
dor perished with him. 



34 GREECE. 

25. The battle of Mantine'a was followed by a peace be- 
tween all the Grecian states, establishing the independence 
of each city. Soon afterward the Spartans, under the com- 
mand of Agesila'us, proceeded to Egypt, to assist Tachos, 
the king of that country, against Nectane'bus, who aspired to 
the throne. But when the Egyptians, who crowded to see the 
famous warrior, beheld a little, deformed, lame old man, sit- 
ting on the sea shore, clad in homely attire, they could scarce- 
ly conceal their disappointment. In consequence of some per- 
sonal affront received from Tachos, Agesila'us deserted him, 
and raised his competitor to the throne. Having set sail for 
Sparta, he died on the coast of Egypt, leaving a high reputa- 
tion as an able statesman and warrior. 



SECTION IX. 

Philip of Macedon: Sacred "War: Battle of Chceronea: 
Alexander the Great : Conquest of Persia : Battles of 
the Granicus, Issus, and Arbela: Alexander's Death. — 
From B. C. 360 to 324. 

1. After the death of Agesila'us, little occurs in the history 
of Greece deserving notice, till the appearance of Philip of 
Macedon. The several states were now in an abject condition, 
the inhabitants having greatly degenerated from the patriotism 
and valor of their ancestors. 

2. Athens, at this time the most prominent of the republics, 
was sunk in luxury and dissipation ; yet she was distinguish- 
ed for her cultivation of literature and the arts. Sparta, weak- 
ened by the new independence of Peloponne'sus, and cor- 
rupted by the introduction of gold, had abandoned her char- 
acteristic simplicity and severity of manners, and was greatly 
reduced from her former greatness. Under these circumstances, 
Philip formed the ambitious project of bringing the whole of 
Greece under his dominion. 

3. The kingdom of Mag'edon, or Macedonia, had existed 
upwards of 400 years, but it had not risen to any considerable 
eminence ; it had formed no part of the Greek confederacy, 
and had had no voice in the Amphictyon'ic council. The 
inhabitants boasted of the same origin with the Greeks, but 
they had had little intercourse with the mother country, and 
were considered by the latter, as barbarians. 



GREECE. 35 

4. The Macedonian Empire, which was commenced by 
Philip, and completed by his son Alexander, formed the third 
great empire of antiquity. It is sometimes called the Grecian 
Empire, because Greece, in its most extensive sense, included 
Macedonia, and because all Greece was subject to Philip and 
Alexander. 

5. Philip, when only ten years old, was sent as a hostage 
to Thebes, and there enjoyed the advantage of an excellent 
Grecian education under Epaminon'das. At the age of 24 
years he ascended the throne. He possessed great military 
and political talents, and was eminently distinguished for his 
consummate artifice and address. In order to accomplish his 
design of bringing all the states of Greece under his domin- 
ion, he cherished dissensions among them, and employed 
agents or pensionaries in each, with a view of having every 
public measure directed to his advantage. 

6. The Phocians had long cultivated a valuable tract, called 
the Cirrhsea.n plain, which, it was now maintained, had been, 
in a former age, consecrated to the Delphian Apollo ; and it was 
decreed, by the council of the Amphictyons, that they should 
cease to use the sacred land under the penalty of a heavy fine. 
From this circumstance a contest arose, called the Sacred 
War, in which almost all the states of Greece took a part, 
and which was carried on with spirit for ten years. The 
Thebans, Locrians, Thessalians, and others, undertook to 
punish the Phocians, who were supported by Athens, Sparta, 
and some other states. 

7. Philip, having taken and destroyed the city of Olynthus, 
at length availed himself of the opportunity, which this war 
afforded, of bringing his power into full contact with the Gre- 
cian states. He proposed to act as arbitrator of the matter in 
dispute, and procured himself to be elected a member of the 
Amphictyonic council ; and he was afterwards styled the Am- 
phictyonic general. The Athenians, suspicious of his designs, 
refused to acknowledge the election, and, being now guided 
by the inflammatory eloquence of Demos' thenes, rather than by 
the pacific counsels of Pho'cion, they were plunged into a 
destructive contest with their powerful rival and neighbor. 

8. A second Sacred War drew Philip again into Greece. 
The Locrians of Amphis'sa having encroached upon the con- 
secrated ground of Delphi, and having refused to obey the 
decrees of the Amphictyonic council, Philip was invited, as 
their general, to vindicate their authority by force of arms. 
The Athenians and Thebans, roused to the utmost enthusi- 



36 GREECE. 

asm by Demos'thenes, united to resist the growing power of 
this ambitious monarch. The two armies met at ChcBronc'a, 
and, after a most obstinate battle, Philip gained a decisive vic- 
tory, which secured to him an entire ascendency in Greece. 

9. It was not the policy of the conqueror to treat the sev- 
eral states as a vanquished people. He permitted them to 
retain their separate iu <?pendent governments, while he di- 
rected and controlled. ail the public measures. 

JO. Philip next projected the invasion of Person, and, con- 
voking a general council of the states, laid before them his 
design, which was highly popular, and he was chosen com- 
mander-in-chief of the united forces of all the states of Greece. 
Having made formidable preparations for his expedition, and 
being just ready for his departure, he was assassinated by a 
captain of his guards, while solemnizing the nuptials of his 
daughter. The news of Philip's death caused the most tumul- 
tuous joy among the Athenians, who indulged the vain hope 
of again recovering their liberty. 

11. Alexander (afterward surnamed the Great), the son of 
Philip, succeeded to the throne of Macedon, at the age of 20 
years. He had been educated by Ar'istotle, the most emi- 
nent philosopher of his time, and, at an early age, he gave 
proofs of a love of learning, a generous and heroic disposition, 
distinguished talents, and unbounded ambition. 

12. Demos'thenes exerted all his eloquence to persuade his 
countrymen to unite against the youthful king. But Alexan- 
der, having reduced to subjection some barbarous nations to 
the north of Macedon, turned the whole force of his arms upon 
Greece. The Thebans, who had risen in rebellion, were de- 
feated with great slaughter, their city razed to the ground, 
and the inhabitants, to the number of 30,000, sold for slaves. 
These dreadful acts of severity so intimidated the other states 
that they immediately submitted to his dominion. 

13. Alexander then assembled the deputies of the Grecian 
spates at Cor'inth, and renewed the proposal of invading Persia, 
ard he was appointed, as his father had been, generalissimo. 
He had, for his companions in arms, Parme'nio and other 
officers, who had distinguished themselves in the wars of 
Philip 

14. With an army of 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse, the sum 
of only 70 talents, and provisions merely for a single month, 
lie crossed the Hellespont, in order, with means apparently 
so inadequate, to accomplish his arduous enterprise. He first 



GREECE. 37 

proceeded to the site of Ilium, or Troy, and offered sacrifices 
to the manes of the heroes who fell in the Trojan war, partic- 
ularly Achil'les, whom he pronounced to be the most fortunate 
of men, in having Patro'clus for his friend, and Homer for his 
panegyrist. 

15. Dari'us Codom'anus, king of Persia, resolving to crush 
at once the young hero, whom he styled " the mad boy," met 
him, on the banks of the Grani'cus, with an army of 100,000 
foot, and 20,000 horse. Here an obstinate battle was fought, 
in which the Persians were defeated, with the loss, according 
to Plutarch, of 22,000 men, while the Macedonians lost only 
34. In this battle Alexander escaped very narrowly with his 
life. Being attacked by two officers, one of whom was about 
to cleave his head with a battle-axe, he was preserved by Cly } - 
tus, who prevented the blow by running the officer through 
the body with a spear. 

16. The consequences of this victory were important to 
Alexander, as it put him in possession of the city of Sardis, 
with all its riches ; and he soon after took Mik'tus, Halicar- 
nas'sus, and other places of importance. 

17. The next campaign opened early in the spring, when 
the great battle of Issus was fought. The Persian army, stated 
at about 600,000 men, was defeated with prodigious slaughter, 
no less than 110,000 being killed, while the Macedonians lost 
only 450. The engagement took place in a narrow defile, 
where only a small part of the Persian army could be brought 
into action. 

18. The mother, wife, and two daughters of Darius, fell into 
the hands of the conqueror, who treated his royal captives with 
the greatest delicacy and respect. Darius, hearing of Alexan- 
der's kindness towards his family, sent an embassy to him, 
offering, for their ransom, the sum of 10,000 talents, (about 
<£2,000,000 sterling,) and proposing a treaty of peace and al- 
liance, with the further offer of his daughter in marriage, and 
all the country between the Euphrates and the iEgae'an sea 
as her dower. 

19. When the offer was laid before Alexander's council, 
Parme'nio is reported to have said, " If I were Alexander, I 
would accept the terms." "And so would I," replied Alexan- 
der, " were I Parme'nio." The answer which he returned to 
the proposal imported that he had invaded Asia to avenge the 
unprovoked aggressions of the Persian monarchs ■ that, if Da- 
rius would come to him, and ask for his wife and family, ho 
would willingly deliver them to him ; but, if he proposed to 

4 



38 GREECE. 

dispute the sovereignty, he would find him ready to oppose 
him. 

20. He next directed his course towards the rich and com- 
mercial city of Tyre, and demanded admittance into it, in 
order to perform a sacrifice to the Tyrian Her'cules. But the 
Tyrians refusing to grant it, he was so much exasperated, that 
he resolved to reduce the place, which he accomplished after 
a siege of seven months. On this occasion he exercised a 
piece of wanton cruelty, by ordering 2,000 men to be crucified, 
in addition to all those who were put to the sword, or sold into 
slavery. 

21. Having invested and taken the city of Gaza, which 
made an obstinate resistance, he sold 10,000 of the inhabit- 
ants for slaves, and dragged Be'tis, its brave defender, at the 
wheels of his chariot. 

22. Alexander next proceeded to Egypt, which was then 
subject to Persia ; but it readily submitted to his authority. 
Amidst incredible fatigues, he led his army through the des- 
erts of Lybia to visit the temple of Jupiter- Ammon, and, as the 
reward of his labors, was gratified by receiving the title of the 
son of Jupiter. While in Egypt, he commenced a more useful 
and lasting monument of his greatness, by founding the city 
of Alexaii' dria, afterward the capital of Lower Egypt, the seat 
of the Ptolemies, and, for a long time, one of the greatest 
commercial cities in the world. 

23. Returning from this romantic expedition, he received 
again advantageous proposals from Darius, who offered to sur- 
render to him his whole dominions to the west of the Euphra- 
tes ; but he haughtily rejected the offer, telling him, " the 
world could no more admit two masters than two suns." 

24. Having crossed the Euphrates, with an army of nearly 
50,000 men, he met that of Darius, which is said to have 
amounted to about 700,000. A tremendous battle en- 
sued, in which the Persians were entirely defeated, with a loss 
stated at 300,000 men, while that of Alexander was only about 
500. This engagement took place near the village of Gau- 
gamc'la, but it is usually called the battle of Arbe'la, from a 
town farther distant. 

25. This great battle decided the fate of Persia, and intro- 
duced a new era into the history of the world. From that 
period, Europe has maintained the superiority over Asia, which 
was then acquired. Darius, having first escaped into Media, 
and afterwards into Bactria, was there betrayed by Bessus, the 
satrap of the province, and murdered ; and, not long after, the 
whole Persian empire submitted to the conqueror. 



GREECE. 39 

26. Alexander, not yet satiated with conquest, penetrated 
into India, and, in a great battle, defeated JPo'rus, an illustri- 
ous sovereign of that country. He was projecting further 
achievements, when his soldiers, seeing no end to their toils, 
refused to proceed, and demanded that they might be permit- 
ted to return to their country. 

27. Finding it impossible to overcome their reluctance, he 
returned to the Indus, whence, sending round his fleet to the 
Persian gulf under Ne-ar'chus, he marched his army across 
the desert to Persep'olis. Here, in a fit of frenzy, he ordered 
the city to be set on fire. From Persep'olis he returned to 
Babylon, which he chose for the seat of his Asiatic empire, 
and, having resided here some time, he was seized with a 
fever, brought on, according to some writers, by excessive 
drinking, and soon after died, in the 33d year of his age, and 
the 13th of his reign. 

28. Alexander was the most renowned hero of antiquity, 
surpassing all others in the rapidity, extent, and splendor of 
his conquests. Some other conquerors have shed more blood, 
and have waged war on a more cruel system ; but no one ever 
bestowed such fatal brilliancy upon the hateful lust of con- 
quest ; nor has any other person, perhaps, been the cause of 
more misery to mankind, if, to the slaughter occasioned by 
his own wars, we take into the account the influence which his 
example has had on the career of others who have mace him 
their model. 

29. His extraordinary abilities, his romantic and daring 
spirit, and the unparalleled splendor of his successes, have 
been the more mischievous, in their example, from the amia- 
ble and generous qualities which formed a part of his charac- 
ter. He possessed talents which might have rendered him 
distinguished as a statesman and a benefactor to his species ; 
yet it was to his military renown alone that he owed the sur- 
name of Great. , 

30. Though, in the early part of his career, he was distin- 
guished for self-government, yet he became intoxicated by his 
extraordinary success; and his vanity, which was naturally ex- 
cessive, being cherished by the extravagant adulations of the 
sycophants who surrounded him, he was, at length, induced 
to believe himself the son of Jupiter, and a god, that he could 
do no wrong, and that his will ought to be the supreme law 
to his subjects. With these views, he gave himself up to un- 
bounded indulgence, and to acts of the most atrocious cruelty 
and ingratitude. 



40 GREECE. 

31. His most celebrated general, Parme'nio, who had as- 
sisted him in gaining all his victories, he caused to be assas- 
sinated on mere suspicion. His friend Clytus, who had saved 
his life at the Grani'cus, he run through the body with a spear, 
because he contradicted him, when heated with wine. He 
caused the philosopher Callis'thenes to be put to death, with 
the most cruel tortures, because he refused to pay him adora- 
tion as a divinity. 

32. His personal qualities and exploits were such as man- 
kind are too much inclined to admire ; and his history shows 
how easily uninterrupted success degrades the character and 
corrupts the heart ; and how necessary disappointments and 
misfortunes are to teach us moderation, justice, and humanity . 



SECTION X. 

Alexander's Successors : Demosthenes : Phocion : Demetrius 
Phalereus : Achman League : Philopozmen : Subjugation 
of Macedonia and of Greece. — From B. C. 324 to 146. 

1. Alexander named no successor, but, on his death-bed, he 
gave his ring to Perdic'cas, one of his generals ; and, upon 
being asked to whom he left his empire, he replied, " to the 
most worthy." His vast empire was soon rent in pieces by 
the greedy soldiers who had assisted him in the acquisition of 
it, and a period of confusion, bloodshed, and crime, ensued, 
to which civilized nations scarcely furnish a parallel. 

2. The generals of the army appointed Philip Aridce'us, 
the brother of Alexander, with his infant son by Roxa'na, to 
succeed him, and Perdic'cas was made regent. The empire 
was divided into 33 governments, distributed among as many 
of the principal officers. Hence arose a series of intrigues, 
and fierce and bloody wars, which resulted in the total extir- 
pation of Alexander's family, and, after the defeat of Antig'- 
onus, one of his generals, (who had obtained possession of 
his principal dominions in Asia,) in the famous battle of 
Ipsus, in a new division of the empire into four kingdoms, 
namely, that of Egypt, under Ptol'emy ; Macedonia, inclu- 
ding Greece, under Cassan'der; Thrace, together with Bithyn- 
ia, under Lysim'achus ; and Syria, &c, under Seleu'cus. 

3. The kingdom of Thrace lasted only till B. C. 281, when 
Lysim'achus was defeated and slain by Seleu'cus, and that of 



GREECE. 41 

Maiedonia till the battle of Pydna, B. C. 168. The two most 
powerful kingdoms were Syria and Egypt ; the former con- 
tinued under the sceptre of the Seleu'cidce, and the latter un- 
der that of the Ptolemies, till they were both annexed to the 
Roman empire. 

4. During the progress of Alexander's conquests, various 
attempts were made by the Grecian states to throw off the 
yoke of Macedonia. The Spartans, especially, excited a pow- 
erful insurrection, but they were subdued by Antip'ater, who 
had bee'j left by Alexander to govern Macedonia in his ab- 
sence. 

5. The news of Alexander's death occasioned great joy at 
Athens, and the eloquence of Demos' thenes was again exerted 
to rouse his countrymen to secure their liberty. But he was 
still opposed by his former antagonist, the incorruptible and 
prudent Pho'cion, who continued a strenuous advocate for 
peace, and whose language was, " Since the Athenians are 
no longer able to fill their wonted glorious sphere, let them 
adopt counsels suited to their abilities, and endeavor to court 
the friendship of a power which they cannot provoke but to 
their ruin." 

6. The counsels of Demos'thenes prevailed so far, that the 
Greeks formed a confederacy, and made an effort to recover 
their liberty ; but they were finally defeated by Antip'ater, 
and Athens was obliged to purchase peace by the sacrifice of 
her ten chief public speakers, among whom the renowned 
orator Demos' thenes was included. But he put an end to his 
life by poison, in order to avoid falling into the hands of his 
enemies. 

7. Antip'ater was succeeded, in the government of Mace- 
donia, by Polysper'chon, who restored, for a short time, the 
Grecian states to independence. Athens renewed its scenes 
of turbulence, and proceeded to put to death the friends of 
Antip'ater, and, among others, the venerable Pho'cion, who 
was upwards of 80 years of age. He was eminent for his 
public and private virtues, and had been 45 times appointed 
governor of Athens. To a friend, who lamented his fate, he 
said, " This is no more than what I expected ; this treatment 
the most illustrious citizens of Athens have received before 
me." 

8. Polysper'chon was succeeded by Cassander, who appoint- 
ed Deme'trius Pliale'reus governor of Athens. Under his wise 

and beneficent government, which continued 12 years, the city 

4 # 



42 GREECE. 

enjoyed quiet and prosperity, and the Athenians testified their 
gratitude by erecting to him 360 statues. 

9. From this time, Athens never enjoyed any thing more 
than a precarious independence. Her po.itical power and 
greatness had ceased, and her citizens, formerly so distin- 
guished for their spirit of liberty and independence, became 
no less so for their excessive flattery and abject servility. 

10. From this period to the final subjugation of Greece by 
the Romans, the different states underwent a variety of revo- 
lutions ; but they present little tljat is interesting, and still less 
that is pleasing. An immense number of Gauls, under their 
king JBrennus, ravaged the country ; but they were at last 
mostly cut off. 

11. Scarcely recovering from the inroads of these barbari- 
ans, the states of Peloponne'sus were involved in calamities 
by the invasion of the celebrated Pyrrhus, king of Epi'rus, 
the greatest general of his age. He made an unsuccessful 
attack on Sparta, and was afterward slain, at the siege of Ar- 
gos, with a tile thrown by a woman from the top of a house. 

12. The last effort for maintaining the liberty and indepen- 
dence of Greece was made by a confederacy, styled the Aches' - 
an League, which was at first formed by only four small cities 
of Peloponnesus ; not long after, eight other cities joined, and, 
at last, most of the Grecian states. The government of this 
confederacy was committed to Ara'tus, with the title of pre- 
tor. He formed the design of establishing the independence 
of all Greece, but the jealousy of some of the principal states 
rendered the scheme abortive. 

13. Ara'tus was succeeded by Philopoz'men, a man of integ- 
rity and distinguished talents, styled "the last of the Greeks," 
because, after him, Greece produced no leader worthy of her 
former glory. Having triumphed over the Spartans and JEito- 
lians, he was taken and put to death in an expedition against 
the revolted Messenians. 

14. The Romans, who had now become the most powerful 
nation in the world, being solicited by the JEtolians to afford 
them aid against the Macedonians, readily complied with the 
request; and their army, under the command of Quin'tius 
Flamin'ius i defeated Philip, king of Macedon, at Cynoceph'- 
aJtre y and proclaimed liberty to the Grecian states. Nearly 30 
years afterwards, a second Roman army, commanded by Pau- 
hts d&mil'ius,, entered Greece, in a war against Per'seus, son 



GREECE. 43 

of Philip, who was entirely defeated in the battle of Pydna, 
and was led captive to Rome, to grace the triumph of the 
conqueror, and Macedonia was reduced to a Roman province. 

15. The Romans, jealous of the power of the Acharan 
League, endeavored to weaken it by cherishing divisions 
among the states, and by corrupting the principal citizens. 
At length the Spartans, in a contest with the Achaean states, 
sought the aid of the Romans. Metel'lus led his legions 
into Greece, and gained a complete victory over the Achaean 
army. The remainder of the Achaean forces having shut 
themselves up in Cor'inth, the Roman consul, Mum'mius. 
completed the conquest by taking and destroying that city. 
The Achaean constitution was soon after dissolved, and the 
whole of Greece was reduced to a Roman province, under the 
name of Acha'ia. 

16. But Greece, though subject to the Roman arms, ac- 
quired, by her arts of peace, her learning, genius, and taste, 
a silent superiority over her conquerors, and was regarded 
with respect. The most distinguished Romans were educa- 
ted in the Grecian schools of philosophy ; Rome derived her 
learning from Athens, and the victors became the disciples of 
the vanquished. 

17. In reviewing the history of this extraordinary people, 
we see much to admire, and much also to condemn. With 
regard to genius, taste, learning, patriotism, love of liberty, and 
heroism, they were unrivalled among the nations of antiquity. 

18. In perusing the history of Athens, a circumstance which 
must forcibly impress the reader, is the injustice and ingrati- 
tude which she frequently manifested towards many of her 
best citizens, her most illustrious patriots and philosophers. 
Some of the most distinguished victims of this injustice were 
Milti'ades, Aristi'des, Themis' tocles, Ci'mon, JPho'cion, and 
Soc' rates. These were all sentenced to death or banishment; 
yet, not long after their condemnation, the Athenians, with 
their characteristic fickleness and inconsistency, did ample 
justice to their merit, and punished their accusers. 

19. In no period of Grecian history does there appear to 
have existed that virtuous age, which many are accustomed to 
describe more in the spirit of poetical romance than of histor- 
ical truth. The standard both of public and private morali- 
ty, in all the states, and at all times, was low ; and the most 
illustrious men that figure in the history of Greece, were little 
scrupulous in the choice of means for effecting their public 



44 GREECE. 

objects, but seemed to think it right to secure the ascendency 
of their own country, to humble a rival state, or to carry on 
designs of conquest, at any expense of blood or of suffering. 

20. " It is evident," says Mitford, " from the writings of 
Xen'ophon and Pla'to, that, in their age, the boundaries of 
right and wrong, justice and injustice, honesty and dishon- 
esty, were little determined by any generally received prin- 
ciples. — That might gave right, especially in public transac- 
tions, was a tenet generally avowed." 

21. The earlier times were characterized by violence and 
rapine. In a later age, that preceding the Christian era, the 
philosophy of Epicu'rus had gained the ascendency, and 
the subtilties of skepticism, and corruption of manners, had 
reached a height of extravagance which it seemed difficult 
to exceed. The history of the world had demonstrated the 
necessity of some better guide to man than human wisdom 
had been able to afford him, either as a member of society, 
or as a being formed for immortality. 



[For a chronological view of Grecian History, see 
page 322.] 



SECTION XI. 

Grecian Antiquities. 

Grecian Sects of Philosophy. 

The Ionic sect, the most ancient school of philosophy 
among the Greeks, was founded by Tha'les, who was dis- 
tinguished for his knowledge of geometry and astronomy. 

The Italian or Pythagore'an sect was founded by Py- 
thag'oras, who taught the transmigration of souls through 
different bodies. 

The Sbcratic school was founded by Soc'rates, who was 
esteemed the wisest and most virtuous of the Greeks, and the 
father of moral philosophy. 

The Cynics, a sect founded by Antis'thenes, and supported 
by Diog'enes, condemned knowledge as useless, renounced 
social enjoyments and the conveniences of life, and indulged 
themselves in scurrility and invective. 

The Academic sect was founded by Plato, a philosopher 
who has had an expensive empire over the minds of men, 



GREECE. 45 

owing to the sublimity of his doctrines, and the eloquence 
with which he has propounded them. He gave his lectures 
in the groves of Acade'mus, near Athens. 

The Peripatetic sect was founded by Ar'istotle, who estab- 
lished his school in the Lyce'um at Athens. His philosophy 
predominated over the minds of men during 16 centuries. 

The Skeptical sect was founded by Pyrrho, who inculcated 
universal doubt as the only true wisdom. 

The Stoic sect was founded by Zeno. The Stoics incul- 
cated fortitude of mind, denied that pain is an evil, and endeav- 
ored to raise themselves above all the passions and feelings 
of humanity. 

The Epicure'ans, named from their founder, Epicu'rus, 
held that man's supreme happiness consists in pleasure. 

" The Greek philosophy," says Tytler, " affords little more 
than a picture of the imbecility and caprice of the human mind. 
Its teachers, instead of experiment and observation, satisfied 
themselves with constructing theories ; and these, wanting 
fact for their basis, have only served to perplex the understand- 
ing, and retard equally the advancement of sound morality, 
and the progress of useful knowledge." 

The Seven Wise Men. 

The seven wise men of Greece were Tha'les, of Mile'tus ; 
Solon, of Athens ; Bias, of Prie'ne ; CJiilo, of LacedaVmon : 
Pit'tacus, of Mityle'ne ; Cleobu'lus, of Lindos ; and Perian'* 
der, of Cor'inth. — Instead of Perian'der, some enumerate 
My 1 son, and others Anachar' sis. 

The Council of the Amphictyons. 

This council is supposed to have been instituted by Am~ 
phic'tyon, the son of Deuca'lion, king of Thes'saly, at an early 
period of the history of Greece. It was composed of deputies 
from the different states, and resembled the diet of the German 
empire. At its first institution, it is said to have consisted of 
12 deputies, from 12 different cities or states ; but the num- 
ber of deputies was afterwards increased to 24 and to 30. They 
usually met twice a year ; in the spring at Delphi, and in the 
autumn at Thermop'ylce. 

The objects of this assembly were to unite in strict amity the 
states which were represented ; to consult for their mutual 
welfare and defence ; to decide differences between cities ; to 



46 GREECE 

try offences against the laws of nations ; and also to protect 
the oracle of Delphi. 

Oracles, 

The Greeks were in the habit of consulting oracles on all 
important occasions, — as when they were about to declare war, 
to conclude a peace, to institute a new form of government, or 
to enact laws. The most celebrated oracles were those of 
Apollo at Delphi and Delos, the oracle of Jupiter at Dbdo'na, 
and that of Tropho'nius. 

i 

Public Games. 

There were four public and solemn games in Greece, — the 
Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. 

The exercises practised at these games were leaping, run- 
ning, throwing, boxing, and wrestling ; also horse and chariot 
races, and contests between poets, orators, musicians^ philoso- 
phers, and artists of different descriptions. 

Running was much esteemed among the ancient Greeks. 
Leaping was sometimes performed with weights in the hands, 
or upon the head or shoulders. In boxing, the combatants 
held in their hands balls of stone or lead, while their arms 
were guarded with thongs of leather. 

The Olympic games, which were instituted by Her'cules, 
in honor of Jupiter Olympius, were celebrated at the town of 
Olympia, in the first month of every fifth year, and lasted five 
days. They drew together an immense concourse from all 
parts of Greece, and numbers even from foreign countries. 
No one was permitted to contend unless he had prepared him- 
self, by continual exercises, during ten months, in the public 
gymnasium at Elis. 

The contenders were obliged to take an oath that they 
would use no unlawful means to obtain the reward. The prize 
bestowed on the victor was a crown of olive ; yet trifling as was 
this reward, it was considered as the highest honor, and was 
sought for with the utmost eagerness. The victor was greet- 
ed with loud acclamations, and his return home was in the 
style of a warlike conqueror. 

The Greeks computed their time by the celebrations of 
these games, the space intervening between one celebration 
and another being called an Olympiad. 



GREECE. 47 

The Pyth'ian games were celebrated every 5th year, in the 
second year of every Olympiad, near Delphi, in honor of 
Apollo. The victors were crowned with laurel. 

The Ne'mean games were celebrated in the town of Ne'mea, 
every third year. The victors were crowned with parsley '. 

The Tsth'mian games were so called from their being cele- 
brated on the isthmus of Cor'inth. They were instituted in 
honor of Neptune ; observed every 3d or 5th year ; and held 
so sacred and inviolable, that a public calamity could not pre- 
vent their celebration. The victors were rewarded with a 
garland of pine leaves. 

Government of Athens. 

Classes of inhabitants. The inhabitants of Athens were 
divided into three classes ; citizens or freemen, foreigners or 
sojourners, and slaves. 

The citizens were the privileged class, and had the govern- 
ment exclusively in their hands. They were divided into 10 
tribes, but they were not limited to the city, a part of them 
residing in the small boroughs of Attica. The privilege of 
citizenship was highly esteemed, and was obtained with much 
difficulty. 

The sojourners were permitted to exercise trades in the city, 
but had no vote in the assembly, nor could they be raised to 
any office. 

The slaves or servants were the most numerous portion of 
the inhabitants of Attica. They were in a state of hopeless 
servitude, wholly at the disposal of their masters, and perform- 
ed the labor in the fields, the mines, and in private houses. 

Archons and other magistrates. The supreme executive 
power was vested in nine archons, elected annually. They 
wore garlands of myrtle, and were protected from violence 
and insult. 

The first or chief of the nine was called the archon, by way 
of eminence. He had the care of widows and minors through 
out Attica, and determined all causes respecting wills. He 
was punished with death, if convicted of drunkenness while 
in office. 

The second archon, styled Bas' ileus, had the superintendence 
of religious ceremonies, and decided all disputes among priests 



48 GREECE. 

The third archon, called Pol'emarch, had originally the 
superintendence of military affairs ; but his jurisdiction was 
afterwards confined to strangers and sojourners, and to the 
appointment of games in honor of those who fell in war, and 
to the care of the education of their children. 

The six other archons were called Thesmoth 1 eta. They 
presided at the election of inferior magistrates, ratified public 
contracts or leagues, received complaints against persons 
guilty of various offences, and decided disputes respecting 
trade and commerce. 

The Athenian magistrates were divided into three sorts ; 
1st, the Chirotone'ti, who were chosen by the people, in a 
lawful assembly, in which they voted by holding up their 
hands ; 2d, the Clero'ti, who, after having been approved by 
the people, were promoted by lots drawn in the temple of The- 
seus ; 3d, the JEreti, who were extraordinary officers appoint 
ed by particular tribes to take care of any business. 

The poorer citizens were admitted to a share in the govern- 
ment, and might aspire to preferments ; yet the higher offices 
were generally bestowed upon the most distinguished persons, 
The candidates for office were obliged to give an account of 
their past life in the public forum. While in office, the magis- 
trates were liable to trial for an accusation of any failure in 
the discharge of their duties; and, after their office had expired, 
they were obliged to give an account of their management, and 
during 30 days every man was allowed to bring forward his 
complaint. 

Assemblies. The assemblies of the people were composed 
of all the citizens or freemen of Athens ; all foreigners, slaves, 
women, children, and such persons as had received an infa- 
mous punishment, being excluded. They were held four times 
in 35 days ; the place of meeting was the forum, the pnyx, or 
the temple of Bacchus. 

No business could be transacted in an assembly containing 
less than 6,000 citizens. When the question under considera- 
tion was sufficiently discussed, the president called for a decis- 
ion, which was manifested by show of hands. 

Senate. The senate, which was elected annually, originally 
consisted of 400, but was afterwards increased to 500. It was the 
business of this body to examine, with care, all matters, before 
they were proposed to the people, and to see that nothing was 



GREECE. 49 

submitted to them which was contrary to the public good. 
The senate also examined the accounts of the magistrates, 
took care of the fleet, and punished such offences as were not 
forbidden by any written law. 

Areopagus. The name of this court, which signifies Mars' 
Hill, was taken from the place where it was held. This was 
the most distinguished and venerable court of justice in an- 
cient times, and took cognizance of crimes, abuses, and inno- 
vations, either in religion or government. The Areop'agites 
were guardians of education and manners, and inspected the 
laws. To laugh in their assembly was an unpardonable act 
of levity. 

Ostracism. One of the most iniquitous and absurd peculiar- 
ities in the government of Athens, and some other of the Gre- 
cian states, was the practice of the Os'traeism, a ballot of all 
the citizens, in which each wrote down the name of the indi- 
vidual most offensive to him ; and he who was marked out by 
the greatest number of votes, was banished from his country 
for 5, 10, or 20 years. It was not necessary that any crime 
should be alleged, and the property and honor of the exile re- 
mained unhurt. 

This barbarous institution was often subservient to the worst 
purposes, and stained the character of the Athenians with many 
flagrant instances of injustice and ingratitude. 

Government of Sparta. 

Classes of inhabitants. The inhabitants of Sparta consist- 
ed of citizens and slaves or Helots. 

The citizens were divided into two classes, the Homoii, and 
the Hypomiones ; the former alone could be elected to office ; 
the latter, consisting of the poorer citizens, were only allowed 
to vote at the elections. 

The slaves or Helots were much more numerous than the 
freemen. They performed all the servile labor in the field 
and in the house ; also served as sailors in the fleet, and were 
attached to the army, every soldier being attended by one or 
more. 

Kings. The two chief magistrates of the republic of Spar- 
ta were styled kings ; but their power was very limited. They 
presided in the senate, and were high priests of the nation. 
5 



50 GREECE. 

One of them commanded the army, while the other usually 
remained at home to administer justice. They appeared in 
public places without any retinue, and could scarcely be dis- 
tinguished from othei citizens. 

Senate. The senate of Sparta consisted of the two kings 
and 28 elective members who were above 60 years of age, 
and retained their dignity till death. It constituted the su- 
preme council of the republic, and considered all questions 
relating to peace and war, and other important affairs of state. 
None were admitted into this august assembly except such as 
had been distinguished from youth for prudence and virtue. 

Ephori. The Eph'ori were five Spartan magistrates elect- 
ed annually by the people, and might be taken from every 
rank of citizens. It was their duty to inspect the education 
of youth, and the administration of justice. 

Assemblies. Two public assemblies met at Sparta ; one 
called the general assembly, attended by all the freemen of 
Laconia; the other, called the lesser assembly, composed of 
the freemen of the metropolis who were above 30 years of 
age. The general assembly was convened when questions 
relating to peace or war, or other matters of general concern, 
were to be determined. The lesser assembly was held at every 
full moon, and regulated the succession of the crown, and dis- 
cussed matters relating to government and religion. 



SYRIA, OR SYRO-MEDIA. 51 



SYRIA UNDER THE SELEUCHXE. 

1. After the death of Alexander the Great, Antig'onus, one 
of his generals, obtained possession of his principal dominions 
in Asia. But Seleu'cus, another officer of Alexander, and son 
of Anti'ochus, one of Philip's generals, revolted against Antig'- 
onus, and took possession of Babylon ; and by the battle of 
Ipsus, in which Antig'onus was defeated and slain, Seleu'cus 
was confirmed in his authority. He founded the kingdom of 
Syr'ia, or Syro-Media, which, reckoning from the time of his 
taking Babylon to the period when Syria became a Roman 
province, lasted 247 years. It was governed by 23 kings, who 
were styled the Seleu'cidcB, from the name of the founder. 

2. Seleu'cus was a great general, an able and popular sover- 
eign, and was surnamed Nica'tor or Conqueror, on account 
of 23 battles which he gained. He founded 16 large cities, 
the most famous of which were An'tioch, Seleu'cia, Apame'a, 
and Laodice'a. An'tioch, which became the capital of the 
kingdom, was a very large and splendid city, styled " The 
Queen of the East," and also " The Eye of the Christian 
Church." The disciples of Christ were here first called Chris- 
tians ; and this city, at an early period, became the seat of a 
Christian patriarch. 

3. Seleu'cus, having made war against Lysim'achus, king 
of Thrace, defeated and slew him in battle, but was himself 
soon after assassinated by Ptolemy Cerau'nus, who was after- 
wards king of Macedon. He was succeeded by his son Anti'- 
ochus Soter, during whose reign the Gauls made an irruption 
into Asia Minor, and founded the state of Galatia. 

4. The reigns of his successors, Anti'ochus Theos and 
Seleu'cus Callini'cus, were disturbed by conspiracies and by 
wars, particularly with the Parthians and Bactrians, who re- 
volted from the government. 

5. One of the most distinguished of this race of sovereigns 
was Anti'ochus the Great, who had a long reign of 36 years, 
and was as much distinguished for his faults and misfortunes 
as for his great qualities and successes. His reign was a 
continued warfare, presenting alternately victories and defeats. 
He subdued several governors of different provinces who revolt- 
ed from him. In a war with Ptolemy, king of Egypt, after hav- 
ing gained many advantages, he lost a great battle at Raphia. 



52 



SYRIA, OR SYRO-MEDIA. 



He carried his victorious arms into Media, Parthia, Hyrcania, 
and India. 

6. Anti'ochus was visited by Han'nibal, the great Cartha- 
ginian general, who endeavored to persuade him to make war 
upon the Romans, by invading Italy. Instead of this, how- 
ever, he invaded Greece, but was defeated by the Romans, 
and compelled to retire into Asia. Being pursued by a 
Roman army, commanded by Scipio Asiat'icus, he was en- 
tirely defeated in a great battle, on the plains of Magne 1 sia, 
and compelled to accept of peace on humiliating terms. He 
was afterwards put to death by his own officers. 

7. The next two kings were Seleu'cus Philop 1 ator and 
Anti'ochus Epiph'anes, sons of Anti'ochus the Great. The 
latter profaned and plundered the temple of Jerusalem, arid 
attempted to abolish the Jewish worship. But the Jews, under 
Ju'das 3IaccabcE l us ) revolted, and defeated the army of Anti- 
ochus, who immediately engaged in a design to exterminate 
the whole nation ; but before he had effected any thing, he 
died in a sudden and signal manner. 

8. The succeeding reigns of the Seleu'cidce exhibit a series 
of assassinations, conspiracies, and contests, till Syria was 
finally conquered by Pompey, 65 B. C, and made a Roman 
province. 



The SeleucidjE, Kings of Syria. 

[The figures denote the commencement of the reign of each.] 



B.C. 

312. Seleucus I. Nieator. 
283. Antiochus I. Soter. 
261. Antiochus II. Theos. 
246. Seleucus II. Callinicus. 
226. Seleucus III. Ceraunus. 
223. Antiochus III. the Great. 
185. Seleucus IV. Philopator. 
175. Antiochus IV. Epiphanes. 
164. Antiochus V. Eupator. 
162. Demetrius I. Soter. 
150. Alexander I. 
146. Demetrius II. Nieator. 



B.C. 

144. Antiochus VI. 

143. Tryphon. 

139. Antiochus VII. 

127. Alexander II. 

123. Antiochus VIII. 

112. Antiochus IX. 

95. Antiochus X. 

94. Antiochus XI. 

87. Antiochus XII. 

83. Tigranes. 

69. Antiochus XIII. Asiaticus; 
deposed by Pompey, 65 B. C. 



EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES. 53 



EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES. 

1. Of all the conquests of Alexander the Great, Egypt en- 
joyed the earliest and most lasting prosperity. The dynasty 
of the Ptol'emies, which, reckoning from the death of Alex- 
ander to that of Cleopa'tra, lasted 293 years, forms a conspic- 
uous period in the history of that country. 

2. Ptolemy Lagus, surnamed also Soter, was the reputed 
son of Philip, king of Macedon, by a concubine, and half- 
brother of Alexander the Great. At the time of Alexander's 
death, he was governor of Egypt; and after the division of the 
empire into four monarchies, he became king of the counter, 
and had a prosperous reign of 39 years. He was a man 1 £ 
great abilities, eminent as a general and a statesman, and was 
also a man of learning, and a great patron of literature. 

3. He founded the famous library of Alexandria, establish- 
ed a museum, or academy, which became the abode of learned 
men, and erected the celebrated watch-tower of Pharos, which 
was sometimes reckoned one of the seven wonders of the world. 
He built a number of new cities, and caused decayed ones to 
emerge from their ruins, rendered the canals again navigable, 
encouraged commerce and agriculture, restored prosperity to 
Egypt, and conquered Syria. 

4. Ptolemy Soter was succeeded by his second son, Ptol'e- 
my Philadel'phus, who followed, in a great measure, the steps 
of his father, and had a prosperous and splendid reign. He 
founded cities, erected magnificent edifices, finished the canal 
from Suez to the Nilej and promoted navigation and com- 
merce. His court surpassed all others of the age as a seat of 
learning, politeness, and the arts, and was illustrated by TJie- 
oc'ritus, and other men of genius. Daring his reign, the cel- 
ebrated version of the Old Testament into Greek, called the 
Sep'tuagint, was made for the use of the Jews, many of whom 
were, at this time, settled in Alexandria. 

5. Ptolemy Ever'getes, the son and successor of the pre- 
ceding monarch, was a warlike and prosperous prince, and 
likewise a patron of learning. His reign commenced with a 
severe though successful war with Anti'ochus, king of Syria. 
While absent on one of his expeditions, his queen Bereni'ce, 
alarmed for his safety, made a vow that, if he were restored 
to her wishes, she would consecrate her hair in the temple of 
Venus. 

5* 



54 EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES. 

6. The hair was regarded as the chief ornament of Egyp» 
tian ladies ; that of Berenice was particularly beautiful, and 
the sacrifice acquired additional value, as it was a monument 
of her affection for her husband. By some accident, the con- 
secrated locks were soon lost, and the keepers were rescued 
from punishment by the address of the astronomer Conon, 
who affirmed that Berenice's hair had been translated to the 
firmament, and formed a constellation in the heavens. 

7. Ptolemy Ever'getes was succeeded by his son Ptolemy 
Philoft ator , whose character was cruel and sanguinary, and 
whose reign was distinguished for an unrelenting persecution 
of the Jews. When he was at Jerusalem, he attempted to 
penetrate by force into the most holy place of the Jewish tem- 
ple, into which none but the high priest, and he only once a 
year, was permitted to enter. Being forcibly prevented from 
committing this sacrilege, he returned to Egypt, frantic with 
rage, and resolved to wreak his vengeance on the Jewish 
people, who had enjoyed many indulgences under his prede- 
cessors. 

8. He published a decree requiring all the Jews within his 
dominions to abjure their religion, and worship the gods of 
Egypt ; but only about 900 were so base as to apostatize. He 
then commanded all the Jews in Alexandria to assemble in 
the Hip'podrome, or place of public diversion, where he col- 
lected 500 elephants for the destruction of this devoted people. 
But the enraged animals rushed upon the crowd of spectators, 
and crushed more of them to death than of the Jews ; yet 
about 40,000 of the latter are said to have been slain in the 
city. 

9. The reigns of the first three Ptolemies, which comprised 
about a century, formed far the most prosperous part of the 
dynasty. Most of the other reigns were unhappy, abounding 
in crimes and calamities. 

10. The Egyptian kings of the name of Ptolemy were most 
©f them distinguished by a surname, by which they were in 
some manner characterized : 1st, Ptolemy Soter, or Savior, 
so named by the Rhodians, in gratitude for the protection 
which he afforded them : 2d, Ptolemy Philadel'phus, or Lover 
of his Brother t so called, in derision, because he caused his 
two brothers to be put to death : 3d, Ptolemy Ever'getes, or 
Benefactor, so styled because he restored to Egypt the idols 
which had been carried away by Camby'ses : 4th, Ptolemy 
Philop'ator, or Lover of his Father, so named, in derision, 
because he was supposed to have put his father to death : 5th^ 



EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES. 55 

Ptolemy Epiph'anes, or Illustrious, so styled, though his reign 
was weak and inglorious : 6th, Ptolemy Philome'ter, or Lover 
of his Mother, so called, in derision, on account of his hatred 
of his mother : 7th, Ptolemy Physcon, or Big-bellied, so named 
from his deformity : 8th, Ptolemy Lath'yrus, or Chick-pea, so 
called from an excrescence on his nose like a pea : 9th, Ptol- 
emy Aule'tes, or Flute-player. 

11. The last was Ptolemy Dionysius, who succeeded to 
the throne at the age of 13 years. He had for his queen his 
sister, the celebrated Cleopa'tra, who, having caused him to 
be murdered, assumed the sole government. Her history is 
connected with that of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. 
She finally caused herself to be bitten by an asp, in order 
to avoid being led captive to Rome, to grace the triumph of 
Octavius. After her death, Egypt became a Roman province, 
30 B. C. 

12. The queens of the Ptolemies were, according to the 
usage of the country, for the most part, their sisters ; and their 
names were Arsin'o'e, Bereni'ce, and Cleopa'tra. Several of 
them were women distinguished for their talents and accom- 
plishments. 



The Ptolemies, Kings of Egypt. 

[The figures denote the commencement of the reign of each.] 



B.C. 

323. Ptolemy Lagus. 
263. Ptolemy Philadelphia. 
246. Ptolemy Evergetes. 
22]. Ptolemy Philopator. 
204. Ptolemy Epiphanes. 
180. Ptolemy Philometer. 
145. Ptolemy Physcon. 
117. Ptolemy Lathyrus, 



B.C. 

101. Ptolemy Alexander. 
81. Cleopatra. 
80. Ptolemy Alexander II. 
•65. Ptolemy Auletes. 

Berenice. 
51. Ptolemy and Cleopatra. 
48. Cleopatra II. ; the last sove- 
reign, died 30 B. C. 



$6 ROME. 

ROME. 

SECTION I. 

Roman History : Foundation of Rome : Romulus : Numa : 
Tullus Hostilius : Ancus Martins : Tarquinius Priscus .' 
Servius Tullius : Tarquinius Superbus, — expelled, and the 
regal government abolished. — From B. C. 753 to 509. 

1. In the delineation of ancient history, Rome, the last of 
the four great empires of antiquity, becomes, after the con- 
quest of Greece, the leading object of attention. It rose grad- 
ually from small beginnings to almost universal empire, sur- 
passing, in the extent of its dominions, in military power, and 
in the stability and strength of its government, all the great 
sovereignties that had preceded it. Its history is fruitful in 
great events and illustrious personages ; and from it states- 
men and philosophers, of different periods and countries, have 
drawn facts to support their respective speculations and theo- 
ries. The history of this empire, in its progress and decline, 
involves a collateral account of all other nations of antiquity, 
which, in those periods, are particularly deserving of attention. 

2. During the reign of the kings, and the early years of the 
republic, the Roman territories extended only about 15 or 20 
miles around the capital ; and, for about 400 years after the 
foundation of the city, the commonwealth was of very limited 
extent. It then made a rapid progress towards universal do- 
minion ; and, about 50 years before the Christian era, it had 
reduced to its authority almost all the civilized world. . This 
universal empire continued till the 5th century, when it began 
to be broken ; and, towards the end of that century, the West- 
ern Empire became extinct. The Eastern Empire subsisted 
till about the middle of the 15th century, when Constantino- 
ple was taken by the Turks. 

3. The early history of the Romans, like that of other an- 
cient nations, is mixed with fable, and what has been exten- 
sively received as an authentic account of the early ages, is far 
from being entitled to full credit. That a considerable mixture 
of fiction must be blended with the history of the first three or 
four centuries, will appear more than probable when we con- 
sider, that the earliest writer on Roman affairs, whose works 
are extant, flourished nearly 600 years after the foundation of 



ROME. 57 

the city , that the Romans were not a literary people till the 
time of the conquest of Greece ; that, according to their wri- 
ters, the records and monuments of their early history were 
destroyed when the city was burnt by the Gauls, B. C. 390 ; 
and that many of the narratives, relating to the early times, 
have much more the air of fable than of credible history. 

4. The length of time comprised in the reigns of the seven 
kings of Rome, has been regarded as a circumstance calculated 
to throw a veil of doubt over the accuracy of the account given 
of them. Of these kings, three or four died a violent death, 
and one was expelled ; yet the average length of their reigns 
was about 35 years, nearly twice as great as the common 
average length of reigns. 

5. It may be remarked, with regard to those Roman His- 
tories which treat copiously of the early ages, that although 
this portion of them may contain much that is true, yet the 
evidence on which it rests is too slender to command implicit 
belief with respect to such narratives or statements as are in 
themselves highly improbable. We can, by no means, place 
the account of Romulus and that of Julius Casar on the same 
footing with regard to authentic narrative. 

6. According to the poets, JEne'as, a Trojan prince, who 
escaped from the burning of Troy, after a variety of adven- 
tures, arrived in Italy, where he was hospitably received by 
Lati'nus, king of the Latins, whose daughter he married, and 
whom he succeeded in the throne. The succession is said to 
have continued in his family nearly 400 years, till the time of 
Nu'mitor, the 15th king in a direct line from .^Ene'as. 

7. Rhea Sylvia, the daughter of Nu'mitor, was the mother 
of the twin brothers, Rom'ulus and Remus. The two brothers 
founded a city ; but, having quarrelled with each other for the 
sovereignty, Rom'ulus slew Remus, and proceeded with the 
building of the city, which he called, from his own name. 
Home. He was elected king, made the new city an asylum 
for fugitives, and, by stratagem, at a public festival, his sub- 
jects seized and carried off the Sabine women for wives. 

8. Rom'ulus is said to have divided his people into thru 
tribes, each tribe consisting of 10 curim ; and into two orders,, 
patricians and plebe'ians. He instituted a senate of 100 
members, afterwards increased to 200. These were at first 
always chosen from the patricians, but the plebeians afterwards 
acquired an equal right to that dignity. In order to attach the 
two classes, patricians and plebeians, to each other, by mutual 
bonds, he pstablished the connection of patron and client. 



g8 ROME. 

Each plebeian had the right of choosing a patrician for his 
patron, whose duty it was to protect him from oppression, and 
who received from his client certain services. 

9. The king was attended by 12 lictors, with fasces, and 
had a guard of 300 horsemen, called cel'eres, eq'uites, or 
knights. 

10. Numa Pompil'ius, a Sabine, was elected the second 
king of Rome. He was a native of the town of Cures, whose 
inhabitants were styled Quiri'tes, a term afterwards applied to 
Roman citizens. Numa is represented as studious, virtuous, 
and pacific ; and the Romans are said to have received great 
benefits from his government. He softened their fierce and 
warlike dispositions, by cherishing the arts of peace, obedience 
to the laws, and respect for religion. He built the temple of 
Janus, which was open during war, and closed during peace. 

11. Tullus Hostil'ius, the third king of Rome, was of a 
warlike disposition. His reign is memorable for the romantic 
story of the combat between the Hora'tii and Curia'tii, who 
were six in number, sons of two sisters, three at a birth. 
The Horatii fought for Rome, and the Curiatii for Alba. 
One of the Horatii survived, all the rest being slain ; and, by 
this victory, the Romans became masters of Alba. 

12. Ancus Mar'tius, the fourth king, was the grandson of 
Numa. He conquered the Latins, and built the port of Os'tia, 
at the mouth of the Tiber. 

13. Tarquin'ius Priscus, or Tarquin the Elder, the son of 
a merchant from Cor'inth, was elected successor of Ancus 
Martius. He embellished the city with works of utility and 
magnificence, built the walls of hewn stone, erected the circus, 
or hip'podrome, founded the Capitol, and constructed the cloa 1 - 
€(B, those immense common sewers, or aqueducts, which con- 
veyed into the Tiber the rubbish and superfluous waters of the 
city. 

14. Ser'vius Tul'lius, the son of a captive female slave, and 
son-in-law of Tarquin, secured his election to the vacant throne 
by his own address and the intrigues of his mother-in-law. He 
established the census, by which, at the end of every fifth year, 
the number of citizens, their dwellings, number of children, 
and amount of property, were ascertained. The census was 
closed by a lustrum, or expiatory sacrifice ; hence the period 
of five years was called a lustrum. 

15. Servius had two daughters, of whom the elder was gen- 
tle and submissive, and the younger haughty and ambitious. 
In ord ?r to secure the throne, he married them to the two sons 



ROME. 59 

of Tarquin, the late king, whose names were Tarquin and 
Arwis, and whose different dispositions corresponded to those 
of his daughters. But he took care to cross their tempers by 
giving the elder to Tarquin, who was violent, and the younger, 
Tullia, to Aruns, who was mild, hoping they would correct 
each other's defects. But Tarquin and Tul'lia soon murder- 
ed their consorts, married each other, and then caused Servius 
to be assassinated. Tarquin usurped the throne, and Tullia, 
in her eagerness to salute him as king, is said to have driven 
her chariot over the dead body of her father. 

16. Tn.rquin, surnamed the Proud, (in Latin, Tarquin'ius 
Super'bus), began his reign by putting to death the chief sen- 
ators, and governing in the most arbitrary manner ; but, by 
his tyranny and cruelty, he soon disgusted all classes of his 
subjects. Sextus, his son, having entered the house of Colla- 
ti'nus, a nephew of Tarquin, under the mask of friendship, did 
violence to his wife Lucre'tia, a woman distinguished for her 
beauty and domestic virtues. The unhappy Lucretia imme- 
diately sent for her husband and father, who came, bringing 
with them Jun'ius Bru'tus, a grandson of Tarquin the Elder, 
and other friends. To them she related her mournful story, 
enjoining upon them to avenge her injury ; and, being unable 
to survive her dishonor, plunged a dagger into her bosom, and 
expired. 

17. Her corpse was carried to the public square ; the ven- 
geance of the people was roused ; and, by the strenuous exer- 
tions of Brutus, the senate pronounced a sentence of perpetual 
banishment against Tarquin and his family. The tyrant, 
being expelled from his capital, and abandoned by his army, 
was never able to gain a readmission into the city ; and the 
regal government was abolished, after having continued 244 
years. 



SECTION II. 

The Commonwealth : Consuls, Collatinus and Brutus : Vale 
rius : Porsenna : Dictator : The Plebeians encamp oa 
Mons Sacer : Tribunes : Coriolanus : Law of Volero : 
Cincinnatus : The Twelve Tables : Decemvirs : Appiui 
Claudius.— Prom B. C. 509 to 449. 

1. The regal authority being abolished, a republican form 
of government was established in its stead. The supreme 



®Q ROME. 

power, as heretofore, belonged to the senate and people ; but, 
instead of a regent for life, two consuls were chosen annually, 
from the patrician families, as presidents of the republic, and 
chief directors of affairs. Their power was nearly the same 
aa that of the kings, except that it was limited to one year. 
The first consuls were Bru'tus and Collati'nus, who had taken 
so distinguished a part in the expulsion of the tyrants. 

2. Tarquin was now in Etruria, where he prevailed upon 
two of the most powerful cities, Ve'ii and Tarquin' ii, to es- 
pouse his cause. He had also numerous partisan- in Rome, 
particularly among the young patricians, who preferred the 
luxuries and splendor of a royal court to the simplicity and 
austerity of a republic. A plot was formed to open the gates 
to receive him, and, upon its being discovered, Brutus had the 
mortification to find his two sons among the conspirators. 
They were brought to trial before himself; he condemned 
them to be beheaded in his presence, and witnessed the shock- 
ing spectacle with a steady look and an unaltered countenance. 
" He ceased to be a father," says an ancient author, " that he 
might execute the duties of a consul, and chose to live child- 
less rather than to neglect the public punishment of a crime." 

3. The insurrection in the city being suppressed, Tarquin 
relied wholly upon external aid, and raised an army in order to 
regain the crown ; but he was defeated by the Romans under 
the command of the consuls Vale'rius, (who was elected in 
place of Collatinus,) and Brutus. In this battle Brutus was 
killed, and the Roman matrons honored his memory by wear- 
ing mourning for him a whole year. Vale'rius, after the 
victory, returned to the city, and was the first Roman who 
enjoyed the splendid reward of a triumph. 

4. Vale'rius having become arrogant from the honors which 
he had received, his popularity began to decline ; and, with a 
view to recover it, he proposed a law, termed, from him, the 
Valerian law, which granted to a citizen, condemned by a 
magistrate, the right of appealing to the people. This gave 
the first blow to the aristocracy in the Roman republic. 

5. For 13 years after the expulsion of Tarquin, the Romans 
were involved in continual hostilities on his account. Of these 
the most remarkable was the war with the Etrurians, under 
their king Porsen'na ; a war fertile in exploits of romantic her- 
oism, and signalized by the daring intrepidity of Hora'tius 
Co'cles, who alone arrested the progress of the enemy at the 
head of a bridge, and of Mutius Sccev'ola, who entered the 
enemy's camp, in disguise, with a design to assassinate Por- 



ROME. 61 

&enna; but hostilities were finally terminated by an amicable 
arrangement between the two parties. 

6. Dangers from domestic disorders were soon added to 
those of wai. Tarquin had induced the Latins to enlist in 
his cause, and approached the city with his army. The ple- 
beians, being poor and oppressed with debt, complained of 
their grievances, and refused to aid in repelling the enemy, 
unless the senate would grant them relief, by remitting their 
debts to the lich. The consuls found their authority of no 
avail ; as the Valerian law gave to any condemned citizen the 
right of appealing to the people. 

7. An extraordinary measure was now necessary ; and a 
new magistrate was created, styled dictator, who was to con- 
tinue in office only as long as the danger of the state required, 
never exceeding the space of six months, and was vested with 
absolute power. He was appointed only in cases of public 
exigency, when quick and decisive measures were necessary. 
He had authority to make peace and war, to levy taxes, to ap- 
point all public officers, and to dispense with the laws, with- 
out consulting the senate or people. Titus Lar'tius one of 
the consuls, being elevated to this high office, raised a large 
army, and, by his firmness and moderation, having restored 
tranquillity, resigned the dictatorship. War having been again 
excited by the Tarquins, Pothu'mius was appointed dictator ; the 
Romans were completely victorious, and the sons of Tarquin 
were slain. 

8. After the death of the Tarqifim, and the return of peace, 
Rome was disturbed by domestic dissensions,' and the dispute 
between the creditors and debtors was again revived. On an 
alarm of war, the plebeians refused to take up arms in defence 
of the republic. Their language was, "Of what consequence 
is it to us whether our chains are forged by our enemies or our 
fellow-citizens. Let the patricians, since they alone have the 
reward of victories, encounter the dangers of war." At length, 
finding no relief from their oppressions, the whole army aban- 
doned their officers, withdrew from Rome, and encamped upon 
Mons Sacer, about three miles from the city. Here they were 
soon joined by the greater part of the people. 

9. This resolute procedure had the desired effect. The 
senate, being alarmed, deputed ten of the most respectable 
of their order, with authority to grant a redress. Mene'nius 
Agrip'pa, one of the senators, is said to have related, in his 
speech to the people, with great effect, the celebrated fable of 
the belly aud the members. A reconciliation was brought about. 

6 



62 ROME 

The debts of the plebeians were abolished, and, for their future 
security, they were allowed the right of choosing, from their 
own order, magistrates, styled trib'unes, who should have the 
power of annulling, by a single veto, every measure which 
they should judge prejudicial to their interest. The tribunes 
were elected annually ; their number at first was five ; after- 
wards increased to ten. By them the aristocracy was held with- 
in bounds, and the fury of the populace was regulated. Two 
magistrates, styled ce'diles, were appointed to assist the tribunes, 
and to take charge of the public buildings. 

10. The neglect of agriculture, which had arisen from the 
revolt of the army, brought on a famine, which caused great 
commotion ; but the arrival of a large quantity of corn from 
Sicily produced a temporary relief. At this time, the resent- 
ment of the people was strongly excited against Coriola'nus, 
who was a man of aristocratic principles, of talents and cour- 
age, and who had distinguished himself in a war against the Vol- 
sci. He advised that no corn should be distributed to the people, 
unless they would restore the rights of the senate, and abolish 
the office of the tribunes. In consequence of the resentment 
which these proposals excited, the tribunes brought charges 
against him, and he was sentenced by the people to perpetual 
banishment. He then went over to the Volsci, who appointed 
him their commander ; and he led their army against Rome, 
which was, for a time, threatened with ruin ; but he was at. 
last persuaded, by the earnest entreaties of his mother and his 
wife, to lay down his arms. 

11. The proposal of an Agrarian law for dividing among 
the people the lands which were obtained by conquest, and 
which were the joint property of all the citizens, proved an 
apple of discord thrown out between the rich and the poor, 
Such a division of the public lands was demanded by the 
plebeians, but it was strenuously opposed by the patricians. 
The design was repeatedly brought forward before any such 
law was enacted, and caused violent dissensions. 

12. By the influence of the tribune Vol'tro, a law was en- 
acted that the election of tribunes should be made, and the 
chief public business discussed, in the comitia, or public meet- 
ings held by tribes ; and not, as before, by the centuries and 
curiae. By this law, the supreme authority was taken from the 
patricians and placed in the hands of the plebeians, and the 
Roman government became a democracy. 

13. Dissensions arising on account of the proposed Agra- 
lian law, and dangers from the invasions of the JEqui and 



ROME. (33 

Volsci, Cincinna'tus was twice called from the plough to as- 
sume the government as dictator. Having completely van- 
quished the enemies of his country, and entered the city in a 
splendid triumph, he resigned his office, and returned again to 
his retirement, to labor upon his farm. 

14. The Romans had hitherto possessed no body of written 
laws. Under the regal government, the kings administered 
justice ; and the consuls succeeded them in the exercise of 
this high authority. But their arbitrary proceedings were 
frequently the subject of complaint, and the citizens became 
desirous of having a fixed code of laws for the security of their 
rights. Three commissioners were, therefore, sent to Greece, in 
order to procure the laws of Solon, and such others as were 
deemed useful in forming a suitable code. 

15. Upon the return of the commissioners, ten of the prin- 
cipal senators, styled decem'virs, were appointed to digest a 
body of laws, and put them in execution for one year. This 
was the origin of those celebrated statutes known by the name 
of the Laics of the Twelve Tables, which formed the basis of 
Roman jurisprudence, and continued to be of the highest 
authority in the mo^t flourishing times of the republic. 

16. The decemvirs were invested with absolute power ; and 
during the time for which they were appointed, all other magis- 
trates were suspended. Each decemvir, by turn, presided for 
a day, and had the sovereign authority, with its insignia and 
fasces. They governed w r ith so much moderation and equity 
during the first year, that they obtained a new appointment ; 
but they soon became tyrannical ; and two flagrant abuses of 
power by Ap'pius Clau'dius, the leading member of their body, 
caused a speedy termination of the office. 

17. One of these crimes was his procuring the assassination 
of Sicin'ius Denta'tus, a Roman tribune, who, on account of 
his extraordinary valor and exploits, was styled the Roman 
Achil'les; the other was his villany with regard to Virginia, 
a beautiful young maiden, who had been betrothed to Icilius, 
formerly a tribune. Having seen her as she was going to a 
public school, and being inflamed with a lawless passion, he 
employed a profligate dependent to claim her as his own 
property, on the pretence of her being the daughter of one of 
his female slaves. 

18. He caused the claim to be brought for trial before him- 
self, and pronounced an infamous decree, by which the inno- 
cent victim was torn from her parents, and placed within his 
own power- v irginius, her father, in order to prevent th« 



64 ROME. 

dishonor of his daughter, plunged a dagger into her heart 
Brandishing in his hand the bloody weapon, he exclaimed 
"By this blood, Appius, I devote thy head to the infernal gods," 
and running wildly through the city, he roused the people to 
vengeance. Appius soon after died in prison by his own 
hand ; the other decemvirs went into exile ; the decemvirate, 
after having continued for three years, was abolished ; and the 
©onsuls were restored. 



SECTION lit. 

Military Tribunes : Censors : Veii destroyed : Camittus : 
Home burnt by the Gauls : Brennus : Manlius : The 
Samnites : Pyrrhus : Conquest of Italy. — From B. C. 
449 to 266. 

1. The two great barriers which still separated the patri- 
cians and plebeians, were the prohibition of their intermarriage, 
and the limitation of the office of consul to the patricians. 
After a long contest, the law prohibiting intermarriages was 
repealed, with the hope that this concession would satisfy the 
people. But this success, on the contrary, stimulated them to 
urge their claim to be admitted to a share in the consulship ; 
and on the occurrence of war, they had recourse to their for- 
mer custom of refusing to enlist, unless their demand was 
granted. 

2. After a long contest, it was agreed on both sides, that, 
instead of consuls, six military tribunes, with the power of 
consuls, should be chosen, three of them from the patricians, 
and three from the plebeians. This institution, however, was, 
in a short time, laid aside ; and the consuls were again restor- 
ed to office. 

3. The disorders of the republic prevented the survey, or 
enumeration, of the citizens from being regularly attended to. 
In order to remedy this neglect, two officers, styled censors, 
were appointed ; and it was made their duty not only to take 
the census every five years, but also to inspect the morals and 
regulate the duties of all the citizens. This was an office of 
great dignity and importance, exercised for 100 years by pa- 
tricians ; in the later times of the republic, only by consular 
persons; and afterwards by the emperors. 

4. In order to avoid the evils which arose from the people's 
frequ sntly refusing to enlist in the army, the senate introduced 



ROME. (35 

the practice of giving regular ^ay to the troops. From this 
period, the Roman system of war assumed a new aspect. The 
senate always found soldiers at command ; the army was under 
its control ; the enterprises of the republic were more exten- 
sive, and its success more signal and important. The art of 
war was improved, as it now became a profession, instead of 
an occasional employment. The Roman dominion, hitherto 
confined to a territory of a few miles, soon began to be rapidly 
extended. 

5. The inhabitants of the city of Ve'ii, long the proud rival 
of Rome, equal in extent and population, had repeatedly made 
depredations on the Roman territories ; and it was decreed 
that Ve'ii, whatever it might cost, should be destroyed. A 
siege was begun, which was continued, with great exertion 
and various success, for ten years. At length, in order to 
carry it on with greater vigor, Camillas was created dictator ; 
and to him was intrusted the sole management of the long 
protracted war. 

6. He caused a passage to be opened under ground into 
the citadel, by means of which he filled the city with his le- 
gions, who plundered and destroyed it. Camillus was honor- 
ed with a splendid triumph, in which he was drawn in a cha- 
riot by four white horses ; but being afterwards accused of 
having appropriated to his own use a part of the plunder of 
Ve'ii, indignant at the ingratitude of his countrymen, he went 
into voluntary exile. 

7. The Gauls, a barbarous and warlike people, had long 
before this opened a passage through the Alps, and had settled 
themselves in the northern part of Italy. Under the command 
of their king Brennus, they laid siege to Clu'sium, a city of 
Etruria, the inhabitants of which implored the assistance of 
the Romans. The senate sent three patricians of the Fabian 
family on an embassy to Brennus, to inquire what offence the 
citizens of Clu'sium had given him. To this he sternly replied, 
that "the right of valiant men lay in their swords; that the 
Romans themselves had no other right to the cities they had 
conquered." The ambassadors, having obtained leave, entered 
Clu'sium, and assisted the inhabitants against the assailants. 
This so incensed Brennus, that he raised the siege, marched 
directly towards Rome, and in a great battle near the rivulet 
Allia, he defeated the Roman army with great slaughter. 

8. The Gauls then entered Rome, and after a general mas- 
sacre of such of the inhabitants as remained in it, and a pillage 
of the c :f ,y, they burnt it to ashes, and razed the walls to the 

•6* 



qq ROME. 

ground. They next besieged the capitol ; but the Romans 
repelled their attacks with great bravery. At length, having 
discovered footsteps leading up to the top of the Tarpe'ian 
rock, a body of Gauls undertook the difficult enterprise of 
gaining the summit in the night; which they accomplished 
while the Roman sentinel was asleep. At this moment, the 
cackling of some geese in the temple of Juno, is said to have 
awakened Marius Man'lius, with his associates^ who instantly 
threw the Gauls headlong down the precipice. 

9. From this time, the hopes of the Gauls began to decline, 
and they soon after agreed to quit the city on condition of 
receiving 1000 pounds weight of gold ; but, after the gold was 
brought, the Gauls weighed with false weights, and the com- 
plaints which the Romans made of the deception, were treated 
with insolence. At this juncture, Camillus, who had recently 
been restored to favor, and again appointed dictator, appear- 
ed at the gates with an army. Having been informed of the 
deception and insolence of the Gauls, he ordered the gold to 
be carried back into the capitol, commanded the Gauls to re- 
tire; adding that "Rome must be ransomed by steel, and not 
by gold." Upon this a battle ensued, in which the Gauls were 
entirely routed, and Camillus was honored as the father of his 
country and the second founder of Rome. The city, being freed 
from its invaders, soon began to rise again from its ashes. 

10. Man'lius was liberally rewarded for his heroism ; but at 
length, envying the fame of Camillus, he abandoned himself to 
ambitious views ; and being accused of aiming at sovereign 
power, he was sentenced to be thrown headlong from the Tar- 
peian rock. Thus the place, which had been the theatre of his 
glory, became that of his punishment and infamy. 

11. The Romans next turned their arms against the Sam- 
nites, a race of hardy mountaineers, inhabiting an extensive 
tract in the southern part of Italy. This contest lasted up- 
wards of 50 years, and was carried on by the Samnites with 
great valor and skill, though they were finally subdued They 
defeated the Romans at CaudincB Furculce, near Caudium, and 
made their whole army pass under the yoke, formed by two 
spears set upright, and a third bound across them. This roused 
the spirit of revenge on the part of the Romans, who appoint- 
ed Papir'ius Cursor dictator ; and the next year, under his 
command, they gained a victory over the Samnites, compelling 
them, in turn, to undergo the same disgrace at Luce'ria ; and by 
the exertions of Fabius Maximus and Decius, they were finally 
subjugated. 



ROME. qj 

12. During the consulship of Manlius Torquatus, a war 
broke out between the Romans and Latins. In order to pre- 
vent confusion in time of action by reason of the similarity of 
the two nations, Manlius issued orders that death should be 
inflicted on any one who should leave his ranks. When the 
two armies were drawn out for battle, Metius, a Latin comman- 
der, challenged to single combat any Roman knight. Titus 
Manlius, the son of the consul, accepted the challenge, and 
slew his adversary ; and for this act he was beheaded by the 
stern order of his father. The Latins were vanquished, and 
submitted to the Romans. 

13. The Tarentines, who were the allies of the Samnites, 
sought the aid of Pyr'rhus, king of Epi'rus, the greatest general 
of his age. He landed at Taren'tum with an army of 30,000 
men, and twenty elephants ; and the Romans, under the com- 
mand of the consul Lcevi'nus, not being accustomed to the mode 
of fighting with elephants, were at first defeated, with the loss 
of 15,000 men ; that of Pyrrhus was nearly as great ; and he 
was heard to confess that another such victory would compel 
him to return to Epirus. His admiration of the heroism of his 
enemy drew from him the celebrated exclamation; "O, with 
what ease could I conquer the world, had I the Romans for 
soldiers, or had they me for their king I" 

14. In the progress of the war, Fabri'cius, who after- 
wards commanded the Roman army, received a letter from the 
physician of Pyr'rhus, importing that for a proper reward he 
would poison the king. Fabri'cius, indignant at so base a 
proposal, gave immediate information of it to Pyr'rhus, who, 
admiring the generosity of his enemy, exclaimed ; " It is 
easier to turn the sun from his course, than Fabricius from 
the path of honor :" — and that he might not be outdone in 
magnanimity, he released all his Roman prisoners without 
ransom. 

15. Pyrrhus then withdrew his army from Italy, in order to 
assist the Sicilians against the Carthaginians ; but he again 
returned, and made a last effort near Benevcn'tum, where he 
was totally defeated by Cu'rius Denta'tus. He then withdrew 
to his own dominions, and the Romans, after having gained 
further victories over the Samnites, became masters of at! 
Lowe* Italy. 



08 SOME. 

SECTION IV. 
Carthage : Sicily. 

1. As the history of Rome now becomes connected with 
. that of Car'thage and Sig'ily, it may be proper to introduce 

here a short notice of those states. 

2. Carthage is said to have been founded, nearly 900 years 
before the Christian era, by Dido, with a colony of Tyrians. 
The government, at first monarchical, became afterwards re- 
publican, and it is commended by Aristotle as one of the most 
perfect of antiquity. The two chief magistrates, called suffe 1 - 
tes, or judges, were elected annually from the first families. 
The religion was a cruel superstition, and human victims 
were offered in sacrifice. 

3. In the time of the Punic wars, Carthage was the most 
commercial and wealthy city, and one of the most splendid 
in the world. It had under its dominion about 300 smaller 
towns in Africa, bordering on the Mediterranean, a great part 
of Spain, also of Sicily, and other islands. The Carthagini- 
ans worked the gold mines of Spain ; they were devoted to 
commerce, and had the vices and characteristics of a commer- 
cial people. The Romans, who were their rivals and enemies, 
represented them as wanting in integrity and honor ; hence 
the ironical phrase, Pu'nica Jides [Punie faith], to denote 
treachery. 

4. History records the names of few persons among the Car- 
thaginians, eminent as philosophers, or distinguished in the 
arts. The Per'iplus, or voyage of Hanno, an illustrious Car- 
thaginian, who wrote an account of his expedition, affords 
proof of ardent enterprise. Carthage produced several cele- 
brated generals, among whom were Hamil'car, As'drubal, and 
Hannibal : the last was the most formidable enemy that Rome 
ever experienced. 

5. The Phoenicians sent colonies to Sicily before the Tro- 
jan war, and the Greeks, at later periods, made settlements on 

he island. Sicily contained many large and opulent cities ; 
of these, Syracuse, founded by the Corinthians, was the most 
populous and commercial, and larger than any of the cities of 
Greece. It was governed, in its early ages, like most of the 
other cities of Sicily, by a democracy, but at length it fell into 
the power of an individual. 

6. To Gc'lon, one of its sovereigns, history ascribes every 
virtue but his successors being cruel tyrants, the people took 



t 



ROME. (59 

measures to rid themselves of the regal government. It was, 
however, after 60 years, again restored in the person of Dio- 
nys'ius, a man of great talents ; but he found it easier to ac- 
quire royalty than to preserve and enjoy it. His son, Dionys- 
ius the Younger, a weak and capricious tyrant, was dethroned 
by the aid of Timo'leon, an illustrious Corinthian, and exiled 
to Corinth, where he died in poverty. 



SECTION V. 

First Punic War ; Regulus : Second Punic War ; Hanni- 
bal : Conquest of Macedonia : Third Punic War ; Car- 
thage destroyed: Conquest of Greece. — From B. C 264 
to 133. 

1. The Romans, having become masters of all Lower Italy, 
were eager to extend their conquests into foreign countries. 
They had hitherto made no naval conquests, and possessed no 
fleet. Carthage was now their most formidable rival, and the 
greatest maritime power in the world, possessing an extensive 
sway over all the commercial towns of the Mediterranean. 
The Carthaginians were rich in merchandise, in silver, and 
gold : the Romans were comparatively poor, but preeminent 
in patriotism and valor, and ambitious of conquest. 

2. The Mamertines, a people of Campa'nia, obtained assist- 
ance of the Romans in a war with Hi'ero, tyrant of Syr'acuse. 
The Syracusans being at first assisted by the Carthaginians, 
a war was brought on between the latter and the Romans, 
styled the first Punic War. The object, at first, of both par- 
ties, was mere 1 ^ to obtain possession of Messa'na, in order to 
command the passage of the straits, which took their name 
from that city ; but it soon became a contest for the sovereign- 
ty of the whole island, and the dominion of the seas. 

3. The Romans now earnestly applied themselves to mar- 
itime affairs. A Carthaginian vessel, which happened, in a 
storm, to be driven ashore, served as a model ; and within 
two months, a fleet, consisting of upwards of 100 vessels, of a 
rude construction, was prepared, of which the command was 
given to the consul Duil'lius, who defeatea the Carthaginians, 
and took 50 of their vessels. Soon after the commencement 
of the war, the Syracusans, changing their course, joined the 
Romans, and Agrigcn'tum was taken from the Carthaginians* 



70 ROME. 

4. The Romans increased their naval force to upwards of 
300 galleys, and gained another great victory, off the coast 
of Sicily, over the Carthaginians, who then made an offer of 
peace ; but it was rejected. The consul Reg'ulus, with an 
army, soon landed on the coast of Africa, defeated the Cartha- 
ginians, and appeared before the gates of the capital. Here, 
being met by the Carthaginians, under the command of Xan- 
thip'pus, a Spartan, he was totally defeated, and taken' pris- 
oner. He was afterwards sent with the Carthaginian ambas- 
sadors to Rome, in order to procure peace, under an oath to 
return if the negotiation should fail. Reg'ulus, thinking the 
terms not advantageous to his country, strenuously opposed 
their being accepted, and returned to Carthage, where he 
was put to death with the most cruel tortures. 

5. The war continued to rage in Sicily with various suc- 
cess ; but the Romans finally prevailed, and the Carthagini- 
ans were compelled to accept of humiliating terms of peace. 
They agreed to abandon Sicily, to pay the Romans 3,200 
talents, and release their captives. Sicily was now declared 
a Roman province, but Syracuse still maintained its indepen- 
dent government. After the close of this war, the Romans 
made a conquest of Cisal'pine Gaul. 

6. The peace between the Romans and Carthaginians last- 
ed 23 years ; and during a part of this period, the temple of 
Janus was shut for the first time since the reign of Numa. 

7. The most distinguished Carthaginian commander in the 
first Punic war was HamiVcar, who was the father of Han 1 - 
nibal, and who trained his son to war, and made him swear, 
when very young, a perpetual enmity to the Roman name. 
Hannibal was one of the greatest generals of antiquity, and 
at the early age of 26 years, was raised to the chief command 
of the Carthaginian army. He commenced the second Punic 
War by besieging Saguntum, a city of Spain in alliance with 
the Romans. After a siege of seven months, the desperate 
inhabitants set fire to the city, and perished in the flames. 

8. Hannibal now formed the bold design of carrying the 
war into Italy, and by an arduous and toilsome march, he led 
his army over the Pyr'cnees, and afterwards over the Alps, and 
gained four great victories, — the first over Scip'io, near the 
Tici'nus ; the second over Sempro'nius, near the Tre'bia ; the 
third over Flamin'ius, near lake Thrasyme'nus ; and the fourth 
over AHmil'ius and Varro, at Cannes. The last was the most 
jmeirorable defeat that the Romans ever suffered. Upwards 



ROME. 71 

of 40,000 of their troops were left dead on the field, together 
with the consul JEmilius. Among the slain were 5,000 or 
6,000 Roman knights, the greater part of the whole body ; 
and Hannibal is said to have sent to Carthage three bushels 
of gold rings, which they wore on their fingers. 

9. Hannibal has been censured for not making the best use 
of this great victory by immediately attacking Rome, and, in- 
stead of doing this, for leading his troops into winter-quarters, 
at Cap'ua, where they were corrupted and enervated by dissi- 
pation in that luxurious city. 

10. The Romans, being now guided by the counsels of the 
sagacious and prudent Fa'bius Max'imus, concentrated their 
strength. The chief command of their armies was given to 
Fa'bius, styled the Shield, and to Marcel'lus, the Sword of 
Rome. The good fortune of Hannibal now forsook him ; and 
he remained 13 years in Italy, after the battle of Cannae, with- 
out gaining any signal advantage. At the siege of Nola he 
was repulsed by Marcellus with considerable loss, and his 
army was harassed and weakened by Fabius. 

11. Syr 1 acme, which had taken part with Carthage, was be- 
sieged by Marcellus, and after being defended for three years 
by the inventive genius of the celebrated mathematician Ar- 
chimc'des, it was at last compelled to surrender. This event 
put an end to the kingdom of Syr'acuse, which now became a 
part of the Roman province of Sicily. A large army of Car- 
thaginians was sent from Spain into Italy under the command 
of As'drubal, the brother of Hannibal, who was defeated with 
great slaughter by the Romans, under the command of the 
consuls Livy and Nero, near Metau'rus. 

12. Scip'io the Younger, afterwards surnamed Africa'nus, 
having conquered Spain, passed over into Africa, with a Ro- 
man army, and carried havoc and devastation to the walls 
of Carthage. Alarmed for the fate of their empire, the Car- 
thaginians immediately recalled Hannibal from Italy. These 
two great commanders, Hannibal and Scijpio, at the head of 
their respective armies, fought on the plains of Zama a mem- 
orable battle, in which the Carthaginians were totally defeat- 
ed. A peace soon followed, the conditions of which were, 
that Carthage should abandon Spain, Sicily, and all the other 
islands in the Mediterranean, surrender all their prisoners, 
give up their whole fleet, except ten galleys, and, in future, 
undertake no war without the consent of the Romans. Thus 
terminated the second Punic war, in the humiliation of Car- 
thage, after having continued for 17 years. 



72 ROME. 

13. Hannibal afterwards fled from his country, and passed 
the last 13 years of his life in Syria and Bithynia. During 
his exile, Scipio resided a while in the same country, and 
many friendly conversations passed between them ; in one of 
which the Roman is said to have asked the Carthaginian, 
" Whom he thought the greatest general." Hannibal immedi- 
ately replied, " Alexander, because that, with a small body of 
men, he had defeated very numerous armies, and had overrun 
a great part of the world." " And who do you think deserves 
the next place ?" continued the Roman. " Pyrrhus," replied 
the other ; " he first taught the method of forming a camp to 
the bc?t advantage. Nobody knew better how to choose, or 
post guards more properly." " And whom do you place next 
to those ?" said Scipio. " Myself," said Hannibal ; at which 
Scipio asked, with a smile, " Where then would you have pla- 
ced yourself, if you had conquered me 1 " " Above Alexan- 
der," replied the Carthaginian, "above Pyrrhus, and above 
all other generals." 

14 While engaged in hostilities with the Carthaginians^, 
the Romans prosecuted the first Macedonian War, which 
terminated in the defeat of king Philip, in the battle of Cyno- 
€eph'a4e. Not long afterwards, a Roman army, under Scip'io, 
surnamed Asiat'icus, invaded Syria, and in the battle of Mag- 
nesia, defeated Anti'ochus the Great. The second Macedo- 
nian War followed, which terminated in the defeat of Per'- 
seus, the last king of that country, in the battle of Pydna, 
and the reduction of Macedonia to a Roman province. 

15. About 50 years after the conclusion of the second Punic 
war, the Carthaginians attempted to repel the Numidians, who 
made incursions into a territory claimed by the former. The 
Romans, pretending this was a violation of their treaty, laid 
hold of it as a pretext for commencing the third Punic War, 
with a determination to effect the entire destruction of Car- 
thage. Por'cius Cato, the censor, who now swayed the de- 
cisions of the senate, had long cherished this savage design, 
and had been in the habit of concluding his speeches with 
this expression : Delenda est Carthago, " Carthage must be 
destroyed." 

16. The Carthaginians, conscious of their inability to resist 
the Romans, offered every submission, and were ready even 
to acknowledge themselves subjects of Rome. They yielded 
up to the demand of the Romans, their ships, their arms, and 



ROME. 73 

munitions of war. They were then required to abandon the 
city, in order that it might be destroyed. This demand was 
heard by the inhabitants with a mixed feeling of indignation 
and despair ; but the spirit of liberty and independence not 
being yet extinct, they were roused to make the most strenu- 
ous efforts, having resolved to sacrifice their lives rather than 
to obey the barbarous mandate. 

17. After the most desperate resistance for three years, the 
city was at last taken by Scip'io, the second Africanus, and 
being set on fire, the flames continued to rage during 17 days. 
Thus was Carthage, with its walls and buildings, the habita- 
tions of 700,000 people, razed to its foundations. Such of the 
inhabitants as disdained to surrender themselves prisoners of 
war, were either massacred, or perished in the flames. The 
scenes of horror were such as to force tears even from the 
Roman general. 

18. The year in which this barbarous transaction took 
place, was signalized by the taking of Cor'inth, and the re- 
duction of Greece to a Roman province. And a few years 
afterwards, Numan'tia, in Spain, after a tremendous siege, fell 
into the hands of the Romans. 



SECTION VI. 

The Gracchi : Jugurtha : Social War : Miihridates : Marius 
and Sylla : Servile War : Conspiracy of Catiline. — From 
B. C. 133 to 63. 

1. The Romans had hitherto been characterized by tem- 
perance, severity of manners, military enterprise, and public 
spirit ; but they were not as yet a literary people, and the arts 
and sciences had been but little cultivated by them. These 
were now introduced from Greece ; and the period of the sub- 
jugation of that country is the era of the dawn of taste and 
literature in Rome. Acquaintance with foreign nations, and 
the introduction of foreign wealth, began also, at this period, 
to introduce luxury and corruption of manners. 

2. The power of Rome was now widely extended ; her arms 
had been every where triumphant ; and by the destruction 
of Carthage, she was freed from the fear of a rival. But 
when there was no longer a foreign object to excite apprehen- 
sion, she began to be torn by domestic dissensions, which con- 

7 



74 ROME. 

tinued, in various forms, to distract the state, till the final dis- 
solution of the commonwealth. 

3. Tibe'rius and Ca'ius Grac'chus, men of eloquence and 
influence, distinguished themselves by asserting the claims of 
the people. Tiberius, the elder of the two brothers, being a 
tribune, attempted to check the power of the patricians, and 
abridge their overgrown estates, by reviving the Licinian law, 
which ordained that no citizen should possess more than 500 
acres of the public lands. A tumult was the consequence, in 
which Tiberius, together with 300 of his friends, was killed 
in the forum by the senators. 

4. This fatal example did not deter his brother Caius from 
pursuing a similar career, in endeavoring to maintain, by 
force, the privileges of the people, against the encroachments 
of the senate. But like his brother, he fell a victim to the 
attempt, with 3,000 of his partisans, who were slaughtered in 
the streets of Rome by the consul Opim'ius. 

5. Jugur'tha, a grandson of Masinis'sa, attempted to usurp 
the crown ofNumid'ia by destroying his cousins, Hiemp'sal and 
Adher'bal, grandsons also of Masinissa, and sons of the deceas- 
ed king Micip'sa. He murdered the elder, but Adher'bal, the 
younger, escaping, applied to Rome for aid ; but the senate, 
being bribed by Jugurtha, divided the kingdom between the 
two. Jugurtha having defeated and slain his cousin, seized 
the whole kingdom ; but he excited against himself the ven- 
geance of the Romans. 

6. War being declared against h/m, the Roman army was 
at first commanded by Metel'lus : but the celebrated Ma'rius 
having supplanted and succeeded him in command, gained 
two great victories over Jugurtha, who was taken prisoner, led 
in chains to Rome, and after having graced the triumph of the 
conqueror, was confined in a dungeon, where he was starved 
to death. Marius afterwards led the Roman army against the 
Teu' tones and Cimbri, and defeated them with great slaughter. 

7. A confederacy of the states of Italy against Rome, to 
obtain the rights of citizenship, gave rise to the Social War y 
which continued to rage for several years, and is said to have 
caused the destruction of about 300,000 men. It was ended 
by conceding the rights of citizenship to all such as should 
return to their allegiance. 

8. Mithrida'tes, king of Pontus, the most powerful monarch 
of the East, and one of the greatest generals of the age, formed 
a design of uniting in a confederacy the eastern and northern 
nations, and, at the head of their forces, of overrunning Italy. 



ROME. 75 

He began the war by causing about 80,000 Romans, who 
dwelt in the cities of Asia Minor, to be massacred in one day ; 
and soon after he invaded Greece. — In this celebrated contest, 
styled the Mithridatic war, the famous Roman generals, Syl- 
la, Lucullus, and Pompey, successively bore a distinguished 
part. 

9. Sylla, a man of great talents and an able general, who 
had distinguished himself in the late wars, and was now at 
the head of an army in Campania, was appointed to the chief 
command in the war against Mithrida'tes. He belonged to 
an illustrious family, and was popular with the senate. But 
his great rival, Ma'rius, a peasant by birth, was an enemy to 
the aristocracy, and a favorite with the people. He was now 
70 years of age, had been distinguished for his warlike genius 
and exploits for nearly half a century, and had been honored 
with two triumphs and six consulates. But his ambition was 
not yet satisfied ; and he had the address to get the command 
of the army transferred from Sylla to himself. 

10. Sylla, on receiving this intelligence, finding his troops 
devoted to him, led them immediately to Rome, which he enter- 
ed sword in hand, surrounded the house of the senate, and com- 
pelled that body to issue a decree declaring Marius an enemy 
to his country. Marius, being obliged to flee, made his 
escape into Africa, and Sylla afterwards entered upon the 
Mithridatic war. Cinna, a zealous partisan of Marius, col- 
lected an army, recalled the veteran warrior, who, after gain- 
ing a bloody victory, entered Rome, and gave orders for 
murdering all the great senators. After a horrible massacre 
of their enemies, Marius and Cinna proclaimed themselves 
consuls, without the formality of an election. But the career 
of Marius was soon terminated by death, and not long after 
Cinna was assassinated. 

11. Sylla, after having had a victorious campaign in the 
war against Mithrida'tes, in which he gained great victories, 
returned to Italy, and entering Rome with his army, caused 
another horrible massacre, in which his object was to exter- 
minate every enemy he had in Italy. Having obtained the 
appointment of perpetual dictator, he caused the streets of 
Rome to flow with the blood of her citizens. To the surprise, 
however, both of his friends and of his enemies, he resigned 
the dictatorship, before he had completed three years in office, 
and retired to a villa at Pute'oli, where he spent the rest of 
his days in the society of licentious persons, and the occasion- 
al pursuits of literature. On his death, he was honored with 



76 ROME. 

a magnificent funeral, and a monument with the following 
epitaph, written by himself: — " I am Sylla the Fortunate, who, 
in the course of my life, have surpassed both friends and 
enemies ; the former by the good, the latter by the evil I 
have done them." — In the civil wars carried on between 
Sylla and Marius, 150,000 Roman citizens were sacrificed, 
including 200 senators, and 33 men who had been consuls. 

12. After the death of Sylla, the old dissensions again 
broke out between the two parties, supported respectively by the 
two consuls, Cat'ulus and Lep'idus. The latter favored the 
party of 3Iarius, and was also supported by Serto'rius, a great 
general, who was now at the head of an army in Spain, where 
he established an independent republic, and sustained, with 
great ability, a war for several years against the Roman state, 
but was at last murdered by Perpen'na. 

13. The commonwealth was now, for two years, harassed 
by the Servile War, excited by Spar'tacus, a Thracian shep- 
herd who had been kept at. Capua as a gladiator. Escaping 
from his confinement, he placed himself at the head of an 
army of slaves, laid waste the country, but was at length 
totally defeated, with the loss of 40,000 men, by Crassus. 

14. A few years after the defeat of Spar'tacus, a conspiracy, 
threatening the destruction of Rome, was headed by Cat'iline, 
a man of extraordinary courage and talents but of ruined 
fortune, and most profligate character. A plan was concerted, 
that there should be a simultaneous insurrection throughout 
Italy ; that Rome should be fired in different places at once ; 
and that Catiline, at the head of an army, should take pos- 
session of the city and massacre all the senators. 

15. This sanguinary plot was seasonably detected and 
crushed by the vigilance and energy of the consul Cicero, 
the great Roman orator. Catiline, at the head of 12*000 
men whom he had collected, was defeated and slain, togetner 
with his whole army. 



SECTION VII. 

First Triumvirate : Civil War of Ccesar and Pompey : 
Second Triumvirate : Dissolution of the Commonwealth. — 
From B. C. 60 to 31. 

1. Pompey, who, on account of his military exploits, was 
surnamed the Great, was appointed to the chief command 



ROME. 77 

in conducting the Mithridatic war, which he brought to a 
successful termination. He defeated Mithrida'tes, king of 
Pontus, and Tigra'nes, king of Armenia, and reduced Syria, 
together with Judea, to the state of a Roman province. Re- 
turning home, after his splendid campaign, the Romans honor- 
ed him with a triumph, and gazed, for three successive days, 
on the spoils of eastern grandeur, which preceded his chariot. 

2. The two most considerable men now in Rome were 
Pompey and Crassus ; the former for his talents, popularity, 
and military fame, the latter for his enormous wealth, exten- 
sive patronage, and great liberality. Julius Casar had, before 
this time, distinguished himself by his military achievements, 
and risen into public notice. When a young man, he was 
exceedingly profligate, and had, at an early age, excited the 
jealousy of Sylla, who, discerning his great talents and ambi- 
tion, said of him, that " he saw many a Marius in that disso- 
lute youth." Pompey and Crassus were hostile to each other, 
both of them contending for the command of the republic. 
Ccssar paid court to both, and had the address to unite them. 
The three formed the design of appropriating to themselves 
the whole power of the state, and entered into that famous 
league, known by the name of the First Triumvirate. 

3. They distributed the foreign provinces among them- 
selves : Pompey received Spain and Africa, and remained 
in Rome ; Crassus chose Syria, which was the richest ; 
Caesar took Gaul, and he ratified his treaty with Pompey by 
giving him his daughter Julia in marriage. Crassus, having 
made war against the Parthians, who were commanded by 
Surc'na, was defeated in a battle fought near Carres, and 
was afterwards taken and slain, leaving the empire to his two 
colleagues. The bond of union between Caesar and Pompey 
had already been dissolved by the recent death of Julia ; the 
two rivals became jealous of each other ; each began to mani- 
fest hostility, and to aspire to undivided dominion. 

4. On the division of the provinces among the triumvirs, 
Caesar had proceeded immediately to take possession of Gaul, 
which was inhabited by many barbarous and warlike nations, 
most of them yet unconquered. Here he had a most brilliant 
career of victory, in eight campaigns, which he conducted 
with extraordinary ability. He contrived to give a color of 
justice and humanity to his bloody operations, by professing 
himself the protector of the native inhabitants, against the in- 
vasions of the Helvetii and the Germans. He acquired a 
high military reputation, and great popularity ; and rendered 

7* 



78 ROME. 

himself the idol of his troops by sharing with them every 
danger, and by his great liberality, affability, and clemency. 

5. Pompey, who had remained all this time in Rome, was 
alarmed on account of the great reputation of his rival, and 
endeavored to thwart his views. The term of Caesar's govern- 
ment being about to expire, he applied to the senate to be 
continued in his authority ; but this body, being devoted to 
Pompey, denied his demand. He now resolved to support 
his claim by force of arms, and a civil war was the conse- 
quence. The consuls and most of the senators were the 
friends of Pompey. Caesar had on his side a victorious army 
devoted to his cause, and the great body of Roman citizens, 
whom he had won by his liberality. 

6. Pompey had been careful to place in the provinces gov- 
ernors devoted to himself; but he had no army, and took no 
measures to raise one. Cicero, surprised at his negligence 
in his preparations, asked him with what troops he expected 
to oppose Caesar 1 " I need only stamp my foot on the ground," 
he replied, " and an array will arise." 

7. Caesar, having bound his army to him by an oath of 
fidelity, led it over the Alps, and stopping at Ravenna, wrote 
to the Roman government, offering to resign all command, in 
case Pompey would do the same ; but the senate decreed that 
he should lay down his government and disband his forces, 
within a limited time, under the penalty of being declared an 
enemy to the commonwealth. Ccesar marched his army to 
the banks of the Ru'bicon, a small river separating Italy from 
Cisalpine Gaul, and forming the limits of his command ; and 
to pass which with an army, or even a single cohort, had been 
declared by the senate a sacrilege and parricide. On arriving 
at this famous stream, he is said to have hesitated, impressed 
with the greatness of the enterprise, and its fearful conse- 
quences ; and to have said to Pollio, one of his generals, " If 
I pass this river, what miseries I shall bring on my country I 
and if I do not pass it, I am undone." Soon after, he exclaim- 
ed, " The die is cast ;" and putting spurs to his horse, he 
passed the stream, followed by his soldiers. 

8. The news of this movement excited the utmost terror 
in Rome. The citizens reproached Pompey with his supine- 
ness. " Where now," said a senator, in derision, " is the 
army that is to rise up at your command 1 Let us see if it will 
come by stamping." Pompey himself was alarmed, and aware 
that he was unable to resist Caesar in Rome, where the great 
body of the citizens were devoted to him, he led his forces to 



ROME. 79 

Cap'ua, where he had two legions ; thence he proceeded to 
Brvndu'sium, and passed over to Dyrrach'ium, in Macedo- 
nia. He was followed by the consuls and a great part of the 
senate, and took measures to levy troops both in Italy and 
Greece. 

9. Caesar having made himself master of Italy in 60 days, 
directed his course to Rome, entered the city triumphantly 
amidst the acclamations of the people, seized the public treas- 
ury, and possessed himself of the supreme authority without 
opposition. He made great ostentation of clemency, said that 
he entered Italy, not to injure, but to restore the liberties of 
Rome and the citizens, and gradually dissipated the fears 
which had been generally entertained of another proscription. 
After staying a few days in the city, he proceeded with his 
army to Spain, defeated Pompey's lieutenants, made himself 
master of the whole country, and returned victorious to Rome, 
where the citizens created him dictator and consul. 

10. Tns monarchs of the East had declared in favor of 
Pompey, and had sent him large supplies ; and he had at this 
time collected a numerous army. His cause was considered 
that of the commonwealth ; and he was daily joined by crowds 
of the most distinguished nobles and citizens from Rome. He 
had, at one time, in his camp, upwards of 200 senators, among 
whom were Cicero and Cato, whose approbation alone was 
equivalent to a host. 

11. Caesar staid only 11 days at Rome : being anxious to 
bring his antagonist to a decisive engagement, he pursued 
him with his army, and near Dyrrach'ium., an engagement 
took place, which terminated in favor of Pompey, who after- 
wards led his troops into the plains of Pharsa'lia. Caesar did 
every thing to provoke a general battle ; and when he saw his 
enemy advancing, he exclaimed, " The time we have so long 
wished for is come ; let us see how we are to acquit ourselves." 
The contest was now calculated to excite the deepest interest ; 
the two armies were composed of the best soldiers in the world, 
and were commanded by the two greatest generals of the age ; 
and the prize contended for was nothing less than the Roman 
empire. 

12. Pompey's army consisted of upwards of 50,000 men ; 
Caesar's, of less than half that number ; yet the troops of the 
Jatter were far the best disciplined . On the side of Pompey, 
there was the most confident expectation of success ; the minds 
of all being less occupied about the means of conquering, than 
about distributing the fruits of victory. The engagement, 



BO ROME. 

which lasted from early in the morning till noon, terminated 
in a decisive victory in favor of Caesar, who lost only 200 men, 
while the loss of Pompey amounted to 15,000 killed, and 
24,000 prisoners. 

13. Caesar, on this occasion, manifested his characteristic 
clemency, and the honors which he had acquired as victor 
were soon rendered more glorious by his humanity and modera- 
tion. He set at liberty the senators and Roman knights, and 
incorporated with the rest of his army the most of the prison- 
ers. The baggage of Pompey was brought to him, containing 
numerous letters of his enemies ; these he threw into the fire 
without opening them. When viewing the field strown with 
his fallen countrymen, he seemed affected at the melancholy 
sight, and exclaimed, as if by way of justification ; " They 
would have it so .!" 

14. The fate of Pompey was wretched in the extreme. 
Accustomed to victory for 30 years, and master of the repub- 
lic, he was in one day deprived of his power, and became a 
miserable fugitive. Taking with him his wife Cornelia, he 
fled with very few attendants to Egypt, to seek protection of 
Ptolemy, whose father he had befriended. But he was basely 
murdered in the presence of his wife, and his body thrown 
upon the sand. His freed man burnt his corpse, ana 1 buried 
the ashes, over which the following inscription was afterwards 
placed : — " He, whose merits deserve a temple, can now 
scarcely find a grave." In the mean time, Caesar had instant- 
ly followed Pompey into Egypt, and the head of his rival, 
which had been preserved, was presented to him ; but he 
turned his face from it with horror, shedding tears on remem- 
bering their former friendship, and he ordered a splendid 
monument to be erected to his memory. 

15. The throne of Egypt was now possessed by Ptolemy 
and his sister, the celebrated Cleopa'tra. The latter aspired 
to undivided authority, and Caesar, captivated by the charms 
of the beautiful queen, decided the contest in her favor. A 
war ensued, in which Ptolemy was killed, and Egypt subdued 
by the Roman arms. Caesar for a while abandoned himself 
to pleasure, in the company of Cleopatra, but was at length 
called away to suppress a revolt of Phama'ces y the son of 
Mithrida'tes, who had seized upon Colchis and Armenia. 
Caesar subdued him with great ease, in a battle at Zela; 
and in his letter to Rome, he expressed the rapidity of his 
conquest in three words ; Veni> vidi, vici ; " I came, I saw, 
1 conquered." 



ROME. 81 

16. Caesar now hastened to Rome, which he found in a 
state of great disorder, by reason of the bad government of 
Mark An' tony ; but he soon restored tranquillity. Pompey's 
party had rallied their forces in Africa, under the command 
of Cato and Scipio, assisted by Juba, king of Mauritania. 
Caesar pursued them thither, and gained a complete victory 
in the battle of Thapsus. Cato, who was a rigid Stoic and 
stern republican, shut himself up in U'tica, where he medita- 
ted a brave resistance ; but perceiving all was lost, he killed 
himself in despair. 

17. The war in Africa being thus ended, Caesar returned 
again to Rome, and celebrated a most magnificent triumph, 
which lasted four days : the first was for Gaul ; the second 
for Egypt ; the third for his victories in Asia ; and the fourth 
for his victory over Juba. He distributed liberally rewards to 
his veteran soldiers and officers, and to the citizens ; he treat- 
ed the people with combats of elephants, and engagements 
between parties of cavalry and infantry ; and he entertained 
them at a public feast, at which 20,000 couches were placed 
for the guests. The multitude, intoxicated by these allure- 
ments of pleasure, cheerfully yielded up their liberties to their 
great enslaver. The senate and people vied with each other 
in acts of servility and adulation. He was hailed father of Ms 
country, was created perpetual dictator, received the title of 
imperator or emperor, and his person was declared sacred. 

18. After having settled the affairs at Rome, he found him- 
self obliged to go again into Spain, where Labie'nus and the 
two sons of Pompey had raised an army against him ; but he 
completely defeated them in the obstinate and bloody battle 
of Mun'da, which decided the fate of the adherents of his 
rival. 

19. Having now acquired, by the force of his arms, the 
whole Roman empire, and subdued all who opposed his usur- 
pation, Caesar returned to Rome the master of the world. But 
no usurper ever used his power with greater wisdom and mod- 
eration. " I will not," he said, in one of his speeches, " re- 
new the massacres of Sylla and Marius, the very remembrance 
of which is shocking to me. Now that my enemies are sub- 
dued, I will lay aside the sword, and endeavor, solely by my 
good offices, to gain over those who continue to hate me." 
He pardoned all who had carried arms against him, made no 
distinction with regard to parties, devoted himself to the pros- 
perity and happiness of the people, corrected abuses, extended 
bis care to the most distant provinces, reformed the calendar, 



83 ROME. 

undertook to drain the Pontine marshes, to improve the navi- 
gation of the Tiber, and to embellish the city ; and he con- 
ceived many noble projects which he was not destined to 
realize. 

20. Though Cassar had repeatedly refused the crown when 
offered, by Mark Antony, to his acceptance, yet a rumor was 
widely circulated that he aspired to the name of an office of 
which he enjoyed all the splendid realities ; and the fresh 
honors which the senate continued to heap upon him, were 
calculated to excite the envy and jealousy of a body of men 
who conspired against his life : nor could he, by his clemency 
and munificence, obliterate from the minds of the people the 
remembrance of their former constitution, or of the manner 
in which he had obtained his power. The conspiracy which 
was now formed against him, embraced no less than 60 sena- 
tors ; and at the head of it were Brutus and Cassius, men 
whose lives had been spared by the conqueror after the battle 
of Pharsalia. The former, who was beloved by Caesar, and 
had received from him numerous favors, was actuated by 
hatred, not of the tyrant, but of tyranny, and sought the equiv- 
ocal reputation of sacrificing all the ties of friendship and 
gratitude to the love of liberty and of his country. The latter 
thirsted for revenge against an envied and hated superior. 

21. The rumor that the crown was to be conferred upon 
the dictator on the ides [15th] of March, induced the conspira- 
tors to fix upon that day for the execution of their designs ; 
and no sooner had Caesar taken his seat in the senate-house, 
than he was assailed by their daggers. He defended himself 
for a while with vigor, till, on a sudden, seeing Brutus among 
the assailants, and being astonished at the desertion of his 
friend, he uttered the celebrated exclamation, Et tu Brute, 
" And you too, Brutus," when, muffling up his face with his 
mantle, he resigned himself to his fate, and fell pierced with 
213 wounds. Thus perished Julius Ctzsar, in the 56th year 
of his age, 14 years after he commenced his career of con- 
quest in Gaul, and after having been only about 5 months in 
the undisputed possession of that power, which it had been 
the object of his life to obtain. 

22. Caesar was one of the most extraordinary men that have 
appeared in history, uniting the three-fold character of the his- 
torian, the warrior, and the statesman. Although as the sub- 
verter of the liberties of his country, he deserves only to be de- 
tested ; yet he is not without claims to admiration ; for, together 
with b'? unbounded ambition, he possessed the most splen- 



ROME. 83 

did endowments of genius, and many noble qualities of the 
heart ; and the world has scarcely seen a more able or a more 
amiable despot. 

23. His career was indeed bloody, involving in destruction 
vast numbers of his species ; yet he had no tendency to cru- 
elty, except so far as it was necessary to effect his ambitious 
designs, nor any thirst for blood ; and he was always distin- 
guished for his clemency to a vanquished enemy. It has been 
said, by way of apology for him, that it was his misfortune to 
be born in a degenerate age : it was, however, the age in 
which flourished Cicero, Cato, and Brutus, who are ranked 
among the most illustrious of the Roman patriots. 

24. In passing a small village among the Alps on his way 
to take upon himself the government of Spain, before the for- 
mation of the triumvirate, he remarked, that " he would rather 
be the first man in that village, than the second man in Rome." 
He had frequently in his mouth a verse of Eurip'ides, which 
expresses the image of his soul ; " That if right and justice 
were ever to be violated, they were to be violated for the sake 
of reigning." • 

25. In his military character, he has probably never been 
surpassed. He was so much the idol of his troops, that in any 
important conjuncture, his lieutenant could say nothing more 
impressive to them than, " Soldiers, imagine that Caesar be- 
holds you!" Alexander was an heir to the throne, and carried 
into execution the splendid conquest which his father had pro- 
jected, overrunning nations sunk in luxury and effeminacy. 
Csesar, originally a private individual, appears as the framer 
of his own fortune, gradually rising, by well concerted plans, 
to the summit of power, pursuing an uninterrupted career of 
victory, and finally conquering the conquerors of the world. 

26. " We are now contemplating that man," says Muller, 
" who, within the short space of 14 years, subdued Gaul, thickly 
inhabited by warlike nations ; twice conquered Spain ; entered 
Germany and Britain ; marched through Italy at the head of a 
victorious army ; destroyed the power of Pompey the Great ; 
reduced Egypt to obedience ; saw and defeated Pharna'ces ; 
overpowered, in Africa, the great name of Cato, and the arms 
of Juba; fought 50 battles, in which 1,192,000 men fell ; was 
the greatest orator in the world, next to Cicero ; set a pattern 
to all historians, which has never been excelled ; wrote learn- 
edly on the sciences of grammar and augury ; and, falling by 
a premature death, left memorials of his great plans for the 
extension of the empire, and the legislation of the world. So 



84 ROME. 

true it is, that it is not time that is wanting to men, but reso- 
lution to turn it to the best advantage." 

27. The Roman people were struck with horror at the mur- 
der of Caesar. Although he was a usurper, and had made 
himself master of their lives and fortunes, yet he was generally 
popular. His bleeding body was exposed in the forum ; and 
over it Mark Antony, unfolding the bloody robe, pronounced a 
funeral oration ; and by many eloquent appeals to the sympathy 
of the people, he so inflamed their feelings against his murder- 
ers, that they were obliged to escape forthwith from the city, 
in order to avoid destruction. 

28. Mark Antony, a man of great military talents, but of 
most profligate character, Lep'idus, who was possessed of im- 
mense riches, and Octa'vius, or Octavia'nus Ccssar, after- 
wards surnamed Augustus, (the adopted heir of Caesar, and his 
sister's grandson, now only in his 18th year,) concerted a plan 
to divide among themselves the supreme authority, and formed 
the Second Triumvirate, the effects of whose union were, be- 
yond measure, dreadful to the republic. • 

29. They stipulated that all their enemies should be de- 
stroyed, and each sacrificed his best friends to the vengeance 
of his associates. Antony consigned to death his uncle Lu'- 
cius ; Lepidus, his brother Paulus ; and Octavius gave up the 
celebrated Cicero, to whom he was under many obligations, in 
order to gratify the hatred of Antony. The great orator was 
assassinated in his 64th year, by Popillius Laenas, whose life 
he had saved in a capital cause. Antony caused his head to 
be fixed upon the rostra, a spectacle which drew tears from all 
virtuous citizens. Rome was again deluged in blood : in this 
horrible proscription, 300 senators, 2,000 knights, and many 
other respectable citizens were sacrificed. 

30. Brutus and Cassius, whose object it was to restore the 
commonwealth, had retired to Thrace, and were at the head 
of an army of 100,000 men. Antony and Octavius pursued 
them with a still greater number of troops. The empire of 
the world again depended on the fate of a battle. The two 
armies met near Philip 1 pi, and, after a dreadful conflict of 
two days, the death-blow was given to Roman liberty, by the 
total defeat of the republican army. Brutus and Cassius, agree- 
ably to a resolution which they had made before the battle, 
escaped the vengeance of their enemies by a voluntary death. 

31. The triumvirs did not long live in harmony. Lep'idus 
was deposed and banished. Antony having summoned Cleo- 



ROME. 85 

pa'tra to Tarsus, to answer to the charge of having given suc- 
cor to the conspirators, she came decked in all the emblems 
of the queen of love, in a galley decorated in the most splen- 
did style, an,d had the address to make a complete conquest 
of him. He forgot to decide upon her cause, gave up the 
pursuit of ambition, neglected all his affairs, and abandoned 
himself to licentious pleasure with the Egyptian queen. He 
lavished on her the provinces of the empire, for which he was 
declared an enemy to the Roman people ; and on her account 
he divorced his wife Octavia, the sister of his colleague, which 
was a signal for open hostilities between him and Octavius. 

32. A great naval battle, fought near Ac' than, decided the 
contest against Antony and Cleopatra, and left Octavius sole 
master of the empire. Antony, following the example of 
many celebrated Romans, fell upon his own sword ; and 
Cleopatra, in order to avoid being led captive to Rome, to 
grace the triumph of Augustus, procured her own death by 
the poison of an asp. 



SECTION VIII. 

Rome under the Emperors : The Ccesars ; Augustus, Ti- 
berius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, GalbcL, Oiho, Vitellius, 
Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. — From B. C. 31 to A. 

n. 96. 

1. The battle of Actium terminated the commonwealth, 
and Octavius, now named Augus'tus, being the undisputed 
sovereign of the whole Roman empire, had attained the ob- 
ject of his wishes. But, though ambitious of power, he was, 
nevertheless, aware of its dangers ; and he consulted his 
friends, Agrip'pa and Mcece'nas, respecting the course which 
it was advisable for him to pursue. Agrippa entreated him 
to restore liberty to his country ; but Msecenas represented to 
him the danger of renouncing his authority, advised him to 
govern others as he would wish to be governed if it had been 
his destiny to obey, and suggested to him that under the title 
of Ccesar or Imperator, he might enjoy all the influence of a 
king, without offending the prejudices of his countrymen. 

2. Augustus gave the preference to the advice of Maecenas, 
as it best agreed with his natural love of power. He affected 
an appearance of great moderation and respect for the public 
rights, paid particular attention to the people, and having 

8 



86 ROME. 

completely gained their affections, he used every means to 
render permanent the attachment which already existed be- 
tween him and his soldiers. It was his policy to change the 
nature, rather than the form of the government, and he had 
the address to rule as emperor, and yet preserve the appear- 
ance of a republic. 

3. The reputation of Augustus, not only as a warrior, but 
as a legislator and statesman, extended to the remotest king- 
doms. After having arrived at sovereign power, he engaged in 
some successful military enterprises ; but the general charac- 
ter of his reign was pacific : he cherished the arts of peace, 
embellished the city, erected public edifices, pursued the pol- 
icy of maintaining order and tranquillity throughout his vast 
empire, and the temple of Janus was now shut for the first 
time since the commencement of the second Punic war, and 
only the third time from the foundation of the city. 

4. Augustus died in the 76th year of his age, after an illus- 
trious reign of 44 years. His talents were unquestionably 
great ; but the many instances of treachery and cruelty by 
which his conduct was marked, while a member of the trium- 
virate, have left a stain upon his character, and have caused 
it to be generally believed, that the virtues which he after- 
wards manifested, sprung from policy, rather than principle. 

5. The emperor and his minister Maecenas were both em- 
inent patrons of learning and the arts ; and the Augustan age 
of Roman literature has been celebrated by the admiration of 
all succeeding ages. Some of the distinguished men who 
illustrated this reign, were Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Livy. 

6. — The reign of Augustus was rendered memorable by 
the birth of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, which took 
place, according to the best authorities, in the 26th year of 
his reign, and four years before the period commonly assigned 
for the Christian era. In the 18th year of Tiberius, our Sa- 
vior suffered death upon the cross. — 

7. Augustus was succeeded by Tihc'rius, who was the son 
of his wife Liv'ia, by a former husband, and who had distin- 
guished himself by his military talents. The new emperor 
commenced his reign by a show of moderation and clemency ; 
but he soon threw off the mask, and appeared in his real char- 
acter, as an odious and cruel tyrant. The specious form of 
the republic, which Augustus had continued, now disappeared, 
as well as the substance. 

8. The brilliant successes of his nephew German' icus, in 
Germany, who had for his antagonist the celebrated German 



ROME. 87 

general Armin'ius, and the high favor with which he was 
regarded by the people, excited the jealousy of Tiberius, who 
is supposed to have caused him to be poisoned. He then 
took into his confidence Seja'nus, a Roman knight, who be- 
came the minister of the tyranny, rapine, and cruelty, which 
characterized his reign, and who persuaded him to quit 
Rome, and retire to the island of Ca'precs, where he aban- 
doned himself to the most infamous debaucheries. Sejanus 
was now in possession of almost unlimited power, and after 
a short career of despotism, he was accused of treason, sud- 
denly precipitated from his elevation, executed by the order 
of the senate, and his body ignominiously dragged through 
the streets. A few years afterwards, the death of Tiberius 
was hastened by strangling or poison, by one of his favorites, 
in the 78th year of his age, and the 22d of his reign. 

9. Tiberius adopted for his heir and successor Calig'ula, 
his grand-nephew and the son of Germanicus, who com- 
menced his reign under favorable auspices, and his first acts 
were beneficent and patriotic ; but his subsequent conduct 
was so marked by profligacy, tyranny, madness, and folly, 
as to give countenance to the assertion that a disorder, which 
took place after his accession to power, had destroyed his 
understanding and altered his nature. He became almost as 
much the object of the contempt as of the hatred of his sub- 
jects. He caused temples to be built, and sacrifices to be 
offered to himself as a divinity. He took such delight in 
cruelty, that he wished " that all the Roman people had but 
one neck, that he might despatch them at a single blow." 
Seneca says of him, that " nature seemed to have brought 
him forth to show what was possible to be produced from the 
greatest vice, supported by the greatest authority." He was 
assassinated in the 4th year of his reign, and the 29th of his age. 

10. After the death of Calig'ula, the senate were inclined 
to restore the republic ; but, in the general corruption of 
morals, which, since the early part of the reign of Tiberius, had 
surpassed all former example, and extended to all classes of 
the people, the spirit of Roman liberty had disappeared. The 
army preferred an emperor, and Clau'dius, the uncle of Calig'- 
ula, and the grandson of Mark Antony and Octa'via, the sister 
of Augustus, was raised to the throne. He was a man of 
weak and timid character, a dupe even of his domestics, and 
a slave of his infamous vices. 

11. The most remarkable enterprise in the reign of Claudi- 
us, was his expedition into Britain, and the conquest of a part 



88 ROME. 

of that island by his generals. Carac'tacus, a British king, 
after a brave resistance, was taken prisoner, and carried cap- 
tive to Rome, where his magnanimity gained him admiration. 
On being led through the streets, and observing the splendor 
around him, he exclaimed, " How is it possible, that men, 
possessed of such magnificence at home, should envy Carac'- 
tacus an humble cottage in Britain !" 

12. Claudius had five wives, of whom the fourth was Mes- 
sali'na, whose very name is a proverbial reproach, and who, 
having abandoned herself to the most shameful profligacy, 
was put to death for her crimes. The emperor then married 
Agrippi'na, who was equally practised in vice, and who 
poisoned him in the 14th year of his reign, and the 64th of 
his age, in order to make way for Nero, her son by a former 
husband. 

13. Nero had enjoyed the advantage of a good education 
under the philosopher Sen'eca, and at the commencement 
of his reign, he pursued an excellent plan of government, 
which was laid down by Seneca and Burrhus, (the latter of 
whom was prefect of the pretorian guard,) and which held 
out the prospect of better times ; but he soon got rid of 
his counsellors, abandoned himself to rioting and licentious- 
ness, gained a notoriety for profligacy and cruelty above that 
of even all his predecessors, and rendered his name prover- 
bial in all succeeding ages as a detestable tyrant. Among 
the numerous victims, who suffered death by his cruelty, were 
his mother Agrippi'na, his wives Octa'via and Poppa 1 a, 
Seneca and Burrhus, also Lucan, the poet. 

14. He is charged with having caused the city of Rome to 
be set on fire, in mere wantonness, that it might exhibit the 
representation of the burning of Troy.; and he stood upon 
a high tower that he might enjoy the scene. The confla- 
gration continued nine days, and a great part of the city 
was burnt to ashes. In order to avert from himself the pub- 
lic odium of the crime, he charged it upon the Christians, 
who had now become numerous in Rome, and commenced 
against them a most dreadful persecution, in which St. Paul 
was beheaded. 

15. Nero, who rendered himself no less contemptible by his 
follies and extravagances than hateful by his crimes, was too 
odious a monster to be long endured. A conspiracy, headed 
by Vinelex in Gaul, and Galba in Spain, hurled him, at length, 
from the throne. Galba, in a speech, recapitulating his crimes, 
g&id : " What enormity has been too great for him ? Is he not 



ROME. 89 

stained with the blood of his father, his mother, his wife, his 
preceptors, of all those who, in the senate, the city, or the 
provinces, were distinguished by birth, riches, courage, or vir- 
tue? The blood of these innocent victims cries for vengeance ; 
and since we are possessed of arms, and of power of using 
them, let us disdain to obey, not a prince, but an incendiary, 
a parricide, a singer, and an actor." The senate having pass- 
ed sentence against him, he avoided falling into their hands 
by a voluntary death, in the 14th year of his reign, and the 
32d of his age. 

16. After the death of Nero, Galba was declared emperor, 
both by the senate and by the legions under his command. 
He was esteemed a man of courage, talents, and virtue, and 
had acquired a high reputation in the command of armies in 
the provinces ; but he was now in the 72d year of his age, 
and he soon became unpopular by his severity and parsimony, 
and by the abuses practised by his favorites. He adopted for 
his successor the virtuous Piso, a measure which gave offence 
to Otho, his former favorite, who excited a rebellion against 
him, and caused the death both of the emperor and of Piso, 
after a reign of only seven months. Tacitus says of him, 
that, " Had he never ascended the throne, he would have been 
thought, by all, capable of reigning.' ' 

17. Otho was then proclaimed emperor ; but he found a 
formidable rival in Vitel'lius, by whose lieutenants he was 
defeated, and he slew himself after a reign of 95 days. Vitel'- 
lius, being saluted as emperor, is said to have proposed' Nero 
for his model, and rendered himself odious to the people by 
his tyranny and profligacy. Vcspa 1 sian, who was now at the 
head of the Roman army in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor 
by his troops ; Rome was taken by one of his generals, and 
Vitel'lius was assassinated before he had completed the first 
year of his reign. 

18. Vespa'sian was declared emperor by the unanimous 
consent of the senate and the army ; and on his arrival at 
Rome, he was received with the greatest joy. He had risen 
by his merit from a mean origin ; was distinguished for 
his affability, clemency, and firmness ; and reigned with high 
popularity for ten years, promoting the welfare of his subjects. 
He restored order, built the celebrated amphitheatre or Col- 
iseum, whose ruins still attest its grandeur, cherished the 
arts, and patronized learned men, among whom were Jose- 
phus, the Jewish historian, Quintilian, the orator, and Pliny t 
the naturalist. 

8* 



90 ROME. 

19. The reign of Vespasian is memorable for the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, which was effected by his son Titus, after 
a tremendous siege of six months, the city being taken and 
razed to the ground, so that, according to the prediction of 
our Savior, • " not one stone remained upon another." The 
number that perished in this siege, according to Josephus ? 
amounted to upwards of a million, and the captives to almost 
a hundred thousand. The wretched survivors were banished, 
sold, and driven into various parts of the world, and have 
continued to this time a dispersed, yet a distinct people, and 
a monument of the truth of Revelation. 

20. Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus, who 
exhibited such an example of justice, humanity, and gene- 
rosity, that he obtained the enviable 'appellation of the " De- 
light cf mankind" Recollecting one evening, that he had 
done no beneficent act during that day, he made the celebra- 
ted exclamation ; " My friends, I have lost a day !" During 
his reign, happened that dreadful eruption of Vesu'vius, 
which overwhelmed the cities of Hercula'neum and JPompe'ii, 
and caused the death of Plin'y, the naturalist. Titus died 
in the 3d year of his reign, and the 41st of his age, not 
without suspicion of being poisoned by his brother Domi'tian, 
who succeeded him. 

21. Domi'tian was another monster of profligacy and cru- 
elty. He caused himself to be worshipped as a god ; put 
to death the most illustrious Romans, and took pleasure in 
witnessing the torture of his victims. He banished the phi- 
losophers from Rome, and raised a dreadful persecution 
against the Christians. When secluded from the world, he 
passed his time in vicious and degrading amusements. He 
was so much in the habit of catching fl'es, and piercing 
them through with a bodkin, that one of his servants, being 
asked if any one was with the emperor, answered, " Not 
even a fly." 

22. After a reign of 15 years, Domi'tian was assassinated 
at the instigation of his wife, who had discovered that he had 
put her name on the list of those whom he designed to destroy. 
This reign was signalized by the successes of the Romans 
in Britain, under the command of Agric'ola, a great general, 
who had been sent into that country by Vespasian, and who 
made an entire conquest of all the southern part of the 
island. 

23. Domitian was the last of those emperors who are called 
the Twlvc Ccesars, Julius Casar, the dictator, being consid- 



ROME. 91 

ered the first ; though Augustus was the first that is generally 
styled emperor: and Nero was, in reality, the last emperor 
of the family of Augustus. 



SECTION IX. 

Nerva : Trajan : Adrian : Antoninus Pius : Marcus Aurelius 
Antoninus. — From A. D. 96 to 180. 

1. After the death of Domitian, the senate elected for his 
successor Nerva, who was 65 years old, and venerable for his 
virtues, as well as for his age. He was distinguished for 
clemency, but did not possess energy sufficient to repress the 
disorders of the empire. Having adopted Trajan for his 
successor, he died after a reign of 16 months. 

2. Trajan, who was a native of Seville, in Spain, is esteem- 
ed the greatest and most powerful, and one of the most virtu- 
ous, of the Roman emperors. He has been highly commended 
for his affability, his simplicity of manners, his clemency, and 
munificence. He was the greatest general of his age, pos- 
sessed an ardent spirit of enterprise, accustomed himself to 
hardship, and even after he ascended the throne, marched on 
foot, at the head of his troops, over extensive regions. On 
presenting the sword to the pretorian prefect, he gave this 
remarkable charge ; " Make use of it for me, if I do my duty ; 
if 1 do not, against me." The senate conferred on him the 
surname of Optimus or Best ; and for more than than 200 
years, that body was accustomed to hail every new emperor 
with the exclamation : " Reign fortunately, as Augustus ; 
virtuously, as Trajan." 

3. During the reign of Trajan, the boundaries of the 
empire were more extensive than either before or afterwards. 
He subdued the Dacians, conquered the Parthians, and 
brought under subjection Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia 
Felix. In commemoration of his victories over the Dacians, 
he erected a pillar, which bears his name, and which still 
remains in Rome, one of the most remarkable ancient monu- 
ments in the city. 

4. He was a munificent patron of literature, and in his 
reign flourished Pliny the Younger, Juvenal, and Plutarch. 
He died, greatly lamented by his subjects, in the 20th year 
of his reign, and the 63d of his age. The character of this 
great prince was tarnished by a want of equity with regard 
to the Christians, whom he suffered to be persecuted. 



92 ROME. 

5. Trajan was succeeded by A'drian, his nephew, who 
was an able sovereign, generally beneficent and equitable in 
his government ; distinguished also for his eloquence and his 
taste in the liberal arts ; but was, nevertheless, chargeable 
with cruelty and licentiousness. Judging the limits of the 
empire too extensive, he abandoned the conquests of Trajan, 
declined war, devoted himself to the arts of peace, and pro- 
moted the welfare of his subjects. He undertook to visit, in 
person, all the provinces of the empire, in which expedition 
he spent 13 years. In his progress, he reformed abuses, 
relieved his subjects from burdens, and rebuilt cities. While 
in Britain, he erected a turf wall or rampart across the island 
from Carlisle to Newcastle, in order to prevent the incursions 
of the Picts. 

6. He rebuilt Jerusalem, and changed its name to JE'lia 
Capitoli'na. The Jews, incensed at the privileges which the 
pagan worshippers enjoyed in the new city, made a great 
slaughter of the Romans and Christians residing in Judea ; 
in consequence of which, the emperor sent against them a 
powerful army, which destroyed upwards of 1000 of their 
best towns, and slew nearly 600,000 men. A'drian adopted 
for his successor Titus Antoni'nus, and died in the 22d year 
of his reign, and the 62d of his age. 

7. Titus Antoni'nus, more commonly called Antoninus 
Pius, had a reign of 23 years, which was marked by few 
striking events ; but it will ever be distinguished in the Ro- 
man annals for the public and private virtues which exalted 
his character. It was his favorite maxim, that " he would 
rather save the life of one citizen, than put to death a thou- 
sand enemies." 

8. This excellent sovereign adopted for his successor his 
son-in-law, Marcus Aure'lius Antoni'nus, surnamed the Phi- 
losopher. He is esteemed the best model of pagan virtue 
among the Roman emperors ; and " appeared," says an an- 
cient author, "like some benevolent deity, diffusing around 
him universal peace and happiness." He was attached, both 
by nature and education, to the Stoic philosophy, which he 
admirably exemplified in his life, as well as illustrated in his 
work, entitled " Meditations." 

9. Distinguished as the two An'tonines were for justice 
and humanity, yet the persecution of the Christians was per- 
mitted, in some degree, during their reigns. It was to the 
former of the two, that Justin Martyr presented his first 
** Apology for Christianity ;" and the Roman army under 



ROME. 93 

the latter experienced, by means of a thunder-storm, a re- 
markable deliverance, which has been represented by many 
as miraculous, and which gave to a legion of Christians, then 
serving under Aurelius, the name of the Thundering Legion. 
— The name of the wife of each of these emperors was Faus- 
tina, and both of them were noted as women of the most 
abandoned character. 

10. Aurelius died in the 19th year of his reign, and the 
59th of his age. He was the last of the sovereigns styled 
" The five good emperors ;" and the glory and prosperity 
of the Roman people seemed to perish with him. From this 
time, we behold a succession of sovereigns, who, with few ex- 
ceptions, were either weak or vicious ; an empire grown too 
large, sinking by its own weight, surrounded by barbarous 
and successful enemies without, and torn by ambitious and 
cruel factions within ; the principles of the times wholly cor- 
rupted ; and patriotism, virtue, and literature, gradually be- 
coming almost extinct. 



SECTION X. 
From Commodus to Constantine. — From A. D. 180 to 306, 

1. Aurelius was succeeded by his most unworthy son 
Com'modus, who resembled his mother Fausti'na, and 
equalled even Nero in profligacy and cruelty. He was 
assassinated in the 13th year of his reign, and the 32d of 
his age ; and Per'tinax, a man of mean birth, who had risen 
by his merit, and who, from the various conditions through 
which he passed, was styled " the tennis-ball of fortune," was 
proclaimed his successor by the pretorian guards. But the 
new emperor, giving offence by his severity in correcting 
abuses, was, after a reign of three months, put to death by 
the same hands that had placed him on the throne. 

2. The empire was now put up to sale by the soldiers, 
and was purchased by Did'ius Julia'nus, who was murdered 
in the fifth month of his reign, by order of Septim'ius 
Seve'rus, who was proclaimed emperor in his stead. He had 
two competitors for the empire, Niger and Albi'nus, both of 
whom were entirely defeated. Seve'rus was an able warrior ; 
and governed with ability, yet with despotic rigor. He 
made an expedition into Britain, and built a stone wall 
extending from Solway frith to the German ocean, and 



94 ROME. 

nearly parallel to that of A'drian. He died at York, in the 
18th year of his reign. 

3. Seve'rus left the empire to his two sons, Caracal' la 
and Geta; the former of whom murdered the latter, and 
after a tyrannical reign of six years, he was himself assas- 
sinated at the instigation of Macri'nus, who succeeded 
to the throne, and who, after a reign of 14 months, was 
supplanted by Heliogab'alus, who caused him to be put to 
death. 

4. Heliogab'alus succeeded to the throne when only 14 
years old ; yet at this early age, he showed himself to be 
a monster of vice, equalling the worst of his predecessors 
in extravagance, profligacy, and cruelty. He was murdered 
in the 4th year of his reign ; yet in this short period, he had 
exhausted all the resources of pleasure, and had married and 
divorced six wives. 

5. Heliogab'alus was succeeded by his cousin Alexander 
Seve'rus, a mild, beneficent, and enlightened prince, whose 
excellent character shines the brighter from the contrast of 
those who preceded and followed him. He was murdered in 
the 14th year of his reign, and the 29th of his age, at the 
instigation of Max'imin, the son of a herdsman of Thrace, 
and a Goth by nation, who succeeded to the throne, and who 
was nearly eight feet and a half in height, and not less re- 
markable for the symmetry of his person, and his extraordi- 
nary strength, than his gigantic stature ; and was also distin- 
guished for his military talents. 

6. The interval from the time of Alexander Seve'rus to 
that of Diode' tian, was rilled by 16 reigns ; those of Max'imin, 
Max'imus and Balbi'nus, Gor'dian, Philip, De'cius, Gallus, 
iEmilia'nus, Vale'rian, Gallie'nus, Clau'dius, Aure'lian, 
Tac'itus, Flo'rian, Probus, Carus, Cari'nus, and Nume'rian ; 
a period of 49 years, which furnishes little that is pleasing 
or interesting. The short reigns of most of these emperors 
were alike disastrous to themselves and their subjects ; and 
all of them, except Claudius and Tacitus, were cut off by a 
violent death. 

7. The emperor Vale'rian, in a war with Sapor, king of 
Persia, was defeated and taken prisoner. Sapor treated his 
captive with the greatest indignity and cruelty; he used 
him as a footstool in mounting his horse ; afterwards ordered 
his eyes to be plucked out, and finally caused him to be flay- 
ed alive. 



ROME. 



95 



8. The reign of Aure'lian, which lasted only five years, 
was noted for military achievements. He was distinguished 
for great talents, as well as great severity, as a general; 
and for courage and promptitude, has been compared with 
Julius Caesar. He defeated the Goths and Germans, who 
had begun to harass the Romans ; but his most renowned 
victory was that over Zcno'bia, the famous queen of Palmy' ra, 
who was taken captive; and her secretary Longi'nus, the 
celebrated critic, was slain, by order of the conqueror. On 
his return to Rome, Aurelian was honored with one of 
the most splendid triumphs ever witnessed in that city. 
Zenobia was reserved to grace this grand show, bound in 
chains of gold, and overloaded with a profusion of pearls and 
diamonds. 

9. Diocle'tian, who was the son of a Dalmatian slave, rose 
by his merit from the rank of a common soldier to that of a 
great commander ; and on the death of'Cari'nus and Nu- 
me'rian, was acknowledged emperor. He began his reign 
in 284, and two years afterwards associated with himself in 
the government, his friend Maxim 1 ian ; and in 292, they took 
two other colleagues, Gale'rius and Constan'tius, each bear- 
ing the title of Ccesar. The empire was now divided into 
four parts, under the government of two emperors and twe 
Casars, each being nominally supreme ; but, in reality, under 
the direction of the superior talents of Diocle'tian. 

10. In this reign happened the 10th and last great perse- 
cution against the Christians, which raged for several years. 
It was more bloody than any that had preceded it, and was 
so nearly fatal, that the tyrants boasted that they had extin- 
guished the Christian name. 

11. Diocle'tian, in the latter part of his reign, experienced 
a series of calamities, and he and his colleague Maxim'ian, 
resigned the government into the hands of the two Caesars. 
He then retired to his native country, Dalmatia, and built a 
magnificent palace near the town of Salo'na, where he lived 
eight or nine years, and amused himself in cultivating his 
garden. He declared that he here enjoyed more happiness 
than when adorned with the imperial purple ; and was often 
heard to exclaim ; " Now it is that I live ; now I see the 
beauty of the sun !" 



96 ROME. 

SECTION XL 

From the Accession of Constaniine to the Extinction of the, 
Western Empire. — From A. D. 306 to 476. 

1. Constantius died at York, in Britain, having appointed 
his son Con'stantine his successor ; Galerius also died four 
years after ; and Con'stantine, surnamed the Great, having 
defeated all his competitors, became sole master of the em- 
pire. One of the principal competitors for the crown was 
Maxen'tius ; and historians relate that when Constantine was 
marching at the head of his army against this rival, he beheld 
in the heavens a luminous cross, with an inscription in 
Greek, <rou<rw vnca, " Conquer by this ;" and that in conse- 
quence of this vision, and the success which attended his 
arms, he embraced Christianity. 

2. But whatever may have been the circumstance which 
first attracted the favorable notice of Constantine, he be- 
came the avowed friend and supporter of Christianity, and 
has the honor of being enrolled as the first Christian empe- 
ror. He put an end to the persecution of the Christians, and 
also to the combats of gladiators, and other barbarous exhibi- 
tions. His reign forms an important era in ecclesiastical 
history, as the Roman government now became the professed 
protector of the religion which it had repeatedly and cruelly 
persecuted. 

3. An important event in the reign of Constantine, was the 
removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Byzan'tium t 
which latter city, from him, took the name of Constantinople. 
The empire had long been verging to ruin, and this measure 
is thought to have hastened its downfall. Constantine died 
in the 31st year of his reign, and the 63d of his age. His 
character has been variously represented by different writers. 
" It is manifest," says Mijller, " that the genius of Con'stan- 
tine, fertile, if not happy, at least in specious ideas, gave a 
new direction to the course of human affairs. He maintain- 
& } peace by the reputation of his arms ; and his name, alter- 
nately too much exalted and unjustly degraded by prejudiced 
historians, deserves an honorable mention among the mon- 
archs of the Roman world." 

4. Constantine divided the empire between bis three sons, 
Con'stantine II. , Con'stans, and Constan'tius 71. , and two 
nephews. In the space of a few years, all these princes were 
slain, except Constan'tius, the youngest of the soi/s, who re- 



ROME. 97 

mained sole master of the empire. He had a wea* and un- 
fortunate reign of 24 years, during which the empire was 
harassed and weakened by the inroads of the barbarians from 
the north, and the incursions of the Persians on the eastern 
provinces. 

5. Constan'tius was succeeded by his cousin Ju'lian, sur- 
named the Apostate, because, after having received a Chris- 
tian education, he relapsed into paganism. He was possessed 
of considerable talents and learning, and of many heroic 
qualities ; but was the slave of the most bigoted superstition. 
He restored the pagan worship, and attempted to suppress 
Christianity. He undertook to reassemble the Jews, and re- 
build their temple ; but his design is stated, by a number of 
ancient writers, to have been miraculously defeated by the 
eruption of fire-balls from the ground. Ju'lian was killed in 
a war with the Persians, in the second year of his reign, and 
the 32d of his age. 

6. Ju'lian was succeeded by Jo'vian, who restored the 
Christian religion, and recalled Athanasius, who had been 
banished by Julian, but died after a short reign of seven 
months. Valentin 'ian, who was then chosen emperor, asso- 
ciated with himself his brother Va'lens, giving him the east- 
ern provinces, which occasioned the final separation of the 
empire into Eastern and Western. The barbarians continu- 
ed to make inroads into different parts of the empire, and the 
Goths now obtained a settlement in Thrace. 

7. The successor of Valentinian was his son Gra'tian, 
who, on the death of Valens, associated with himself Theodo'- 
sius t afterwards surnamed the Great. After the death of 
Gra'tian, and his brother Valentinian II, Theodosius became 
sole master of the empire. His reign was signalized by the 
complete establishment of Christianity, and the downfall of 
paganism in the Roman dominions. Being an able and 
politic sovereign, he repelled the encroachments of the bar- 
barians, and by his wise administration, strengthened, in 
some measure, the empire, which had, for a considerable 
time, been hastening to its fall. He was the last sovereign 
who presided over both divisions of the empire ; and, after a 
reign of 18 years, he was succeeded by his sons, Hono'rius in 
the West, and Arca'dius in the East. 

8. Through the weakness of Honorius and Arcadius, the 
barbarians were enabled to establish and strengthen them- 
selves in their territories. The Goths, under the conduct of 
the famous Al'aric, spread their devastations to the very wall?' 

9 



98 ROME. 

of Constantinople, and filled all Greece with the terror of 
their arms. Al'aric then penetrated into Italy, at the head 
of a large army, but was defeated with great loss by the Ro- 
mans, under Stil'icho. After the death of Stil'icho, Al'aric 
invaded the country a second time, and being joined by 
•300,000 auxiliaries, he took and pillaged several cities of 
Italy, and at length pitched his camp before the walls of 
Rome. This great city, which had long sat as mistress of 
the world, and had for ages enriched herself with the spoils 
of vanquished nations, was now reduced to the greatest ex- 
tremities by famine and pestilence. 

9. After the famine had made the most dreadful ravages^ 
Al'aric entered Rome, deprived Honorius of the imperial 
dignity, and gave up the city to be plundered by his soldiers, 
u All the riches of the world," said Al'aric, in addressing his 
army, " are here concentrated : to you I abandon them : but 
I command you to spill the blood of none but those whom 
you find in arms ; and to spare such as take refuge in the 
churches." The fearful devastation continued for six days, 
during which, these fierce barbarians indulged their cruelty 
and ferocity without pity or restraint. 

10. Al'aric died immediately after this conquest ; and the 
Goths, having elected in his stead Ataul'phus, for their lead- 
er, took possession of the southern part of Gaul, and likewise 
passed over the mountains, and founded their kingdom in 
Spain. 

11. A few years after the sacking of Rome by Al'aric,, 
commenced the sanguinary ravages of the Huns, a barbarous 
people of Scythian origin, under the command of their fero- 
cious king At'tila, styled the Scourge of God. Having rav- 
aged the Eastern Empire, he invaded Gaul with an army of 
500,000 men ; and, on the plains of Chalons, was defeated 
by the combined forces of the Romans, under JE'tius (who 
is styled by Gibbon, " the last of the Romans"), and the 
Goths, under Theod'oric, with a loss, according to the lowest 
accounts, of 160,000 men. Notwithstanding this defeat, he 
soon after invaded Italy, extended his ravages to the gates of 
Rome, and compelled Valentinian III. to purchase a peace, 
by an immense dowry to be given to him with the emperor's 
sister Hono'ria. But the death of At'tila soon followed, and 
by this event, the earth was delivered from a warrior who had 
never suffered Europe to enjoy any repose, and who had never 
enjoyed any himself. 

12. Valentinian III. being assassinated at the instiga- 
tion of Pttro'nhis Max'imus, who was saluted emperor, the 



ROME. 99 

empress Eudox'ia invited Gen'scric, king of the Vandals, to 
take vengeance on the murderer of her husband. He eagerly 
embraced the opportunity of disguising his rapacious designs, 
landed in Italy with a numerous army of Moors and Vandals, 
took the city of Rome, and gave it up to his soldiers to be pil- 
laged, with implacable fury, for 11 days ; during which those 
monuments of art and literature, which Al'aric had spared, 
were ransacked and destroyed. 

13. From the death of Valentinian III., the Western Em- 
pire dragged on a precarious and lingering existence, under 
nine successive emperors, for 21 years, till it was finally ter- 
minated, in 476, by the resignation of the last emperor, Rom 1 - 
ulus Augus'tulns, to Odoa'cer, the chief of the Her'uli, who 
assumed the title of king of Italy ; and from this period the 
history of Rome merges into that of Italy. 

14. " Such was the end of this great empire, that had con- 
quered the world with its arms, and instructed mankind with 
its wisdom ; that had risen by temperance, and that fell by 
luxury ; that had been established by a spirit of patriotism, 
and that sunk into ruin when the empire had become so ex- 
tensive, that the title of a Roman citizen was but an empty 
name." 



SECTION XII. 

The Kingdom of the Heruli, of the Goths, and of the Lom- 
bards in Italy. — The Eastern Empire, to its Extinction 
in 1453. 

1. The kingdom of the Her'uli, in Italy, continued only 
about 17 years ; at the end of which period, Theod'oric the 
Great, king of the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, defeated 
and slew Odoa'cer, made himself master of all Italy, was ac- 
knowledged sovereign of the country, and fixed his residence 
at Raven'na. Theod'otus, the third Gothic king of Italy, was 
defeated and slain by Belisa'rius, the general of Justinian, 
who made himself master of Rome. But the Ostrogoths, 
under the brave Tot'ila, recovered their authority, but were, 
in turn, utterly defeated, after their dominion in Italy had 
lasted 64 years, by Nar'ses, who succeeded Belisarius, and 
who governed Italy 13 years. 

2. Narses having been recalled by Justin II., the successor 
of Justinian, invited Alboin, king of the Lombards, or Lonr 



100 ROME. 

gobards, to avenge his injury. Alboin overran and subdued 
the country, was proclaimed king, and made Pavia the capi- 
tal of his dominions. The kingdom of the Lombards, in 
Italy, during the successive reigns of 22 kings, lasted 206 
years, till 774, when Deside'rius, or Didier, was defeated by 
Charlemagne, and Italy was afterwards incorporated into the 
new Empire of the West. The period which elapsed from 
the death of Theodosius the Great to the establishment of the 
Lombards in Italy, was one of the most calamitous and dis- 
tressing in the history of the world. 

3. The Goths were originally from Scandina'via, and were 
distinguished for hospitality and heroic virtues. At the time 
of their taking Rome, under Alaric, they had partially embra- 
ced Christianity. The Ostrogoths and Visigoths, or Eastern 
Goths and Western Goths, were so called from their situation. 
The Her'uli were of Gothic origin ; and the Lombards were 
originally either from Scandina'via, or the north of Germany. 

4. The Eastern Empire, called also the Greek Empire, 
and the Empire of Constantinople, although it suffered from 
the ravages of the barbarous nations who overthrew the West- 
ern Empire, yet it resisted their attacks, and subsisted more 
than 11 centuries, from the time of its foundation by Con- 
stantine. This long period furnishes but few events which 
are particularly interesting. 

5. This empire was in the meridian of its glory in the 6th 
century, during the long reign of Justin' ian, sometimes styled 
the Great, who published a celebrated code of laws, prepared 
by Tribo'nian, a great lawyer of that age. This code is 
regarded as the foundation of the jurisprudence of modern 
Europe. 

6. During the reign of Justinian, Belisa'rius and Nar'ses, 
the two most renowned generals of the age, defended the em- 
pire against the Persians, recovered Africa from the Vandals,, 
and Italy from the Goths, and obtained several great victories 
over these fierce enemies. Justinian built the church of St, 
Sophia, which is now a Mahometan mosque. He and some 
of his successors patronized the arts and learning, and en- 
deavored to revive a taste for literature and science in the 
dark ages ; yet the majority of these emperors were weak sov- 
ereigns, debased by luxury and vice. 

7. After the removal of the seat of empire, there arose a. 
rivalship between the pope or bishop of Rome, and the patri- 
arch of C 3nstantinopIe } each contending for the precedence. 



ROME. 101 

This controversy, which occupies a prominent place in the 
history of the times, finally terminated in the entire separa- 
tion of the Western or Roman, and the Eastern or Greek 
churches. 

8. In 1204, the crusaders took and pillaged Constantino- 
ple, and proclaimed their leader, Baldwin, count of Flanders, 
sovereign of the empire. They kept possession of the throne 
till 1261, under the reign of five French or Latin emperors. 
During this period, the Greek emperors made Nice the seat 
of their power. 

9. In 1453, during the reign of Constantine XII., Ma'ho- 
met II., at the head of 300,000 Turks, besieged and took 
Constantinople, and gave up the city to be plundered by his 
soldiers. He put a final end to the Eastern Empire; and 
since that event, Constantinople has continued the seat of 
the Turkish government. 



[For a chronological view of Roman History, see 
page 325.] 



SECTION XIII. 
Roman Antiquities. 

1. Some account of the origin and nature of most of the 
principal offices, or^magistracies, in the Roman government, 
and also of the division of the inhabitants, has already been 
given. 

2. The whole structure of the constitution under the mon- 
archy, has, upon the authority of Dionys'ius of Halicarnas'- 
sus, been attributed, by most authors, to Rom'ulus, a leader 
of a band of shepherds or fugitives. Yet it is doubtless 
true, that the Roman government, like most others, was the 
gradual result of circumstances ; the fruit of time, and of 
political emergency. 

3. In addition to the divisions of the people, which are 
attributed to Romulus, into three tribes, each of them con- 
sisting of 10 curia, and into two orders, patricians and ple- 
beians, further subdivisions were afterwards made. To the 
three tribes, into which the city was at first divided, Servius 
Tullius added a fourth ; and the four tribes were named from 
the quarters where they dwelt, the Palatine, Subur'ran, Col'- 

9* 



102 ROME, 

latine, a.nd*Es'quiline. Augustus afterwards divided the city 
into 14 wards. 

4. Besides this local division, Servius distributed the citi- 
zens into six classes, and each class into several centuries, or 
portions of citizens, so called, not because they consisted of 
100, but because they were obliged to furnish and maintain 
100 men in time of war. The six classes were formed ac- 
cording to their property ; the first consisting of the richest 
citizens, and the sixth, which was the most numerous, of the 
poorest. The whole number of centuries was 193. 

5. To the two orders of patricians and plebeians, there was 
afterwards added the equestrian order, composed of cq'uites, 
or knights, who were chosen under the direction of the cen- 
sor, and presented with a horse at the public expense, and a 
o-old ring. They were taken promiscuously from those of the 
patricians and plebeians, who had attained their 18th year, 
and whose fortune amounted to <£3,229. 

6. There were, besides, some other distinctions among the 
Roman people, as nob'iles, the noble, including those whose 
ancestors had held the office of consul, pretor, censor, or 
curule edile, and who had a right to make images of them- 
selves. The hom'ines novi, or new men, were persons who 
were the first of their families that had raised themselves to 
any of the above offices. The ignob'iles, or ignoble, were 
those who had no images of their own, or of their ancestors. 
Those whose parents had always been free, were called in- 
gen'ui ; and those who had been slaves, but had been made 
free, were styled liher'ti, and liberti'ni. ^ 

7. The Roman citizens were not merely those who resided 
in the city and Roman territory, but the freedom of the city 
was granted to other parts of Italy, and afterwards to foreign 
cities and towns in the empire, whose inhabitants, thereby, 
enjoyed the same rights as the Romans. 

8. The slaves were an unfortunate class of persons, who 
performed all domestic services, and were employed also in 
various trades and manufactures. They were considered as 
mere property, at the absolute disposal of their owners, and 
were publicly sold in a market-place. Men became slaves 
by being taken in war, or by being born in a state of servi- 
tude ; criminals also were reduced to slavery by way of pun- 
ishment. 

9. Kings. The kings of Rome were not absolute or hered- 
itary ton limited and elective. They could neither enact 



ROME. j0g 

laws, nor make war or peace, without the concurrence of the 
senate and people. Their badges were a white robe, adorned 
with stripes of purple, or fringed with the same color, a 
golden crown, and an ivory sceptre. They sat in the cu- 
rule chair, which was a chair of state, made or adorned with 
ivory; and they were attended by 12 lictors, carrying fasces, 
which were bundles of rods with an axe [securis] stuck in the 
middle. 

10. Senate, The senate at first consisted of 100 members, 
but was afterwards increased to 200 by Tarquin the Elder ; 
and near the dissolution of the republic, it comprised upwards 
of 1000. The senators were at first nominated by the kings ; 
but they were afterwards chosen by the consuls, and at last 
by the censors. This body was usually assembled three times 
a month, but was frequently called together on other days for 
special business. A decree, passed by a majority of the sen- 
ate, and approved by the tribunes of the people, was termed 
senatus consult um. The senators were styled patres, or fa- 
thers, on account of their age, gravity, and the paternal care 
they had of the state. From them the patricians derived their 
designation, because the senate was, at first, composed wholly 
of that order. 

11. Magistrates in general, The magistrates in the Ro- 
man republic were elective, and previous to their election 
Ihey were called Candida 'ti [candidates], from a white robe 
which they wore while soliciting the votes of the people. 

12. The Roman magistrates were divided into ord \a~y y 
extraordinary , and provincial. The ordinary magistrates Were 
those who were created at stated times, and were constantly 
in the republic : the chief of these were the consuls, censors, 
tribunes, ediles, and questors. The extraordinary were such 
as rose out of some public disorder or emergency : these were 
the dictator and the master of the horse, who commanded the 
cavalry ; the decemvirs, the military tribunes, and the inter- 
rex. The provincial magistrates were those who were ap- 
pointed to the government of the provinces. These were at 
first pretors, afterwards pro-consuls and pro-pretors, to whom 
were joined questors and lieutenants. 

13. Consuls. The consuls had the same badges as the 
kings, with the exception of the crown ; and their authority 
was nearly equal, except that it was limited to one year. In 
dangerous conjunctures, they were clothed with absolute pow- 
er, by a solemn decree, " that the consuls take care the com- 
monwealth receive no harm." In order to be a candidate for 
the consulship, it was requisite to be 43 years of age. 



104 ROME. 

14. Pretors. The pretor, who was next in dignity to the 
consuls, and in their absence supplied their place, was ap- 
pointed to administer justice. He presided in the assemblies 
of the people, convened the senate upon any emergency, and 
exhibited certain public games. There was at first but one 
pretor, then two, afterwards more. 

15. Censors. The office of censor was esteemed more 
honorable than that of consul, although attended with less 
power. There were two censors, chosen every five years, 
and their most important duty was performed every fifth year, 
in taking the census of the people ; after which they made a 
solemn lustration, or expiatory sacrifice, in the Campus Mar- 
tins, in the name of the people. 

16. Tribunes. The office of the tribunes was instituted 
merely to protect the plebeians against the patricians ; but 
ihe tribunes gradually acquired very great power. 

17. Ediles. The ediles were so named from their office, 
which was the care of the public edifices, baths, aqueducts, 
roads, markets, &c. They were of two kinds ; plebeian 
ediles, who were assistants to the tribunes ; and- curule ediles, 
who superintended the public games. 

18. Questors. The questors were elected by the people 
to take care of the public revenue. At first there were only 
two, but several more were afterwards added. The military 
questors accompanied the army, and took care of the payment 
of the soldiers. The provincial questors attended the consuls 
or pretors into their provinces, and received the taxes and 
tribute. 

19. Assemblies of the people. An assembly of the whole 
Roman people, to give their vote on any subject, was called 
comi'tia. There were three kinds of comi'tia; the curia' ta, 
the centuria'ta, and the tribu'ta. The comitia were sum- 
moned, by some magistrate, to pass laws, to elect magistrates, 
to decide concerning peace and war, and to try persons guilty 
of certain heinous crimes. 

20. The comi'tia curia 'ta consisted of an assembly of the 
resident Roman citizens, who were divided into 30 cu'rias, a 
majority of which determined all matters of importance which 
were laid before them. 

21. The comi'tia centuria'ta were the principal assembly 
of the people, in which they gave their votes, divided into the 
centuries of their classes, according to the census. At these 
comitia, the consuls, pretors, and censors were created, the 



ROME. 



105 



most important laws enacted, cases of high treason tried, and 
war declared. They met in the Campus Martins, and all 
Roman citizens, whether residing in the city or country, had 
a right to be present, and vote with their respective centuries. 

22. The comi'tia tribu'ta were an assembly, in which the 
people voted divided into tribes, according to their regions or 
wards. They were held to create inferidr magistrates, to 
elect certain priests, to make laws, and hold trials. 

23. The comitia continued to be assembled for upwards of 
700 years, when that liberty was abridged by Julius Ccesar, 
and after him by Augustus, each of whom shared the right 
of creating magistrates with the people. Tiberius deprived 
the people altogether of the right of election. 

24. Priests. The ministers of religion did not form a dis- 
tinct order from the Roman citizens, but were chosen from 
the most honorable men in the state. Some of the priests 
were common to all the gods ; others were appropriated to a 
particular deity : of the former kind, the most important were 
the pontif'ices, the au'gures, the harus 'pices , the quindecem'- 
viri, and the septem'viri ; who were all subject to the pon'tifex 
max'imus, or high priest, chosen by the people. 

25. The pontif'ices among the Romans were priests, 15 in 
number, who judged all causes relating to religion, regulated 
the feasts, sacrifices, and all other sacred institutions, and 
inspected the lives and manners of the inferior priests. The 
pon'tifex max'imus, or high priest, was a person of great 
dignity and authority : he held his office for life, and all the 
other priests were subject to him. 

26. The au'gures, or augurs, were 15 in number, and were 
of great authority. It was their office to foretell future events, 
to interpret dreams, oracles, prodigies, &lc, and to say whether 
any action would be fortunate or not. They divined the future 
chiefly in five ways — from the appearance of the heavens, as 
thunder and lightning ; from the singing or flight of birds ; 
from the eating of chickens ; from quadrupeds ; and from 
uncommon accidents, as sneezing, stumbling, seeing appari- 
tions, &c. &c. 

27. The harus 1 pices were priests whose business it was to 
look upon the beasts offered in sacrifice, and by them to divine 
the success of any enterprise, and to obtain omens of futurity „ 
They derived their omens from the entrails of beasts ; also 
froiii the flame, smoke, and other circumstances attending the 
sacrifice. 



106 ROME. 

28. The quindecem'viri were 15 priests who had the charge 
of the Sib'ylline books, which were three prophetic volumes, 
said to have heen procured from a woman of extraordinary 
appearance, in the time of Tarquin the Proud. They were 
supposed to contain the fate of the Roman empire, and were 
kept in a stone chest under the Capitol. 

29. The scptem'viri were seven priests who prepared the 
sacred feasts at the games, processions, and other solemn oc- 
casions ; and they were also assistants to the pontifices. 

30. The priests of particular deities were called Flam'ines: 
the chief of them were the Dia'lis, priest of Jupiter ; the 
Salii, priests of Mars ; the Lupe'vii, priests of Pan ; the Po- 
ti'tii, priests of Hercules ; the Gal'li, priests of Cyb'ele ; and 
the Vestal Virgins, consecrated to the worship of Vesta. 

31. The Romans worshipped their gods in temples conse- 
crated by the augurs ; also in groves. Their worship con- 
sisted chiefly in prayer, vows, and sacrifice. 

32. Festivals. The Romans celebrated feasts in January 
in honor of Janus ; in February were the Luperca'lia, or 
feasts of Pan, and the Fera'lia, in honor of ghosts or spirits 
of the deceased ; in March, the Matrona'lia, a feast kept by 
the Roman matrons, and the Quinqua'tria, in honor of Mi- 
nerva ; in April, the Cerea'lia, in honor of Ceres ; in Decem- 
ber, the Saturna 1 lia, or the feasts of Saturn, the most famous 
of all the festivals. There were besides many other festivals. 

33. Games. The shows exhibited in the circus maximus 
were chariot and horse-races ; contests of strength and agil- 
ity ; mock fights on horse-back ; combats of wild beasts ; 
representations of horse and foot battles ; and nauma'chice, or 
mock naval battles. 

34. Gladiators. The gladiators were persons who fought 
with weapons in a public circus or amphitheatre, for the 
amusement of the people. These combats were introduced 
about the 400th year of the city, and became a most favorite 
entertainment. The combatants were, at first, composed of 
captives, slaves, and condemned malefactors, who were regu- 
larly trained for the combat ; but in the more degenerate 
period of the empire, free-born citizens, and even senators 
engaged in this disgraceful and dangerous amusement. Great 
numbers of men were destroyed in these inhuman exhibitions. 
After the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, spectacles were 
exhibited for 123 days, in which 11,000 animals of different 
kinds were killed ; and 10,000 gladiators fought. 



ROME. iyf 

35. Triumph. A triumph was a solemn procession, in 
which a victorious general and his army advanced through 
the city to the Capitol. It was the highest military honor 
which could be obtained in the Roman state, and was reserv- 
ed for those generals, who, by hard-earned victories and glo- 
rious achievements, had added to the territories of the com- 
monwealth, or had delivered the state from threatened danger. 
The procession began from the Campus Martius, and passed 
through the most public places in the city to the Capitol ; the 
streets being strewed with flowers, and the altars smoking 
with incense. It was composed of musicians, oxen for sacri- 
fice, carriages carrying the spoils taken from the enemy, the 
captive kings or leaders and their attendants, and after the 
whole, the triumphant general, dressed in purple, embroidered 
with gold, with a crown of laurel upon his head, and other 
decorations. 

36. Dress. The most distinguished parts of the Roman 
dress were the toga and the tu'nica. The toga, or gown, 
worn by Roman citizens only, was loose and flowing, and 
covered the whole body ; it had no sleeves, and was disposed 
in graceful folds, to give the wearer a majestic appearance. 
The toga viri'Iis, or manly gown, was assumed by young men 
at the age of 17 years. — The tu'nica, or tunic, was a white 
woollen vest, which came down a little below the knees before, 
and to the middle of the leg behind, and was fastened tight 
about the waist by a girdle. 

37. Meals. The principal meal of the Romans was called 
cfena or supper, which took place about three o'clock in the 
afternoon, and exceeded in luxury eyery thing known in 
modern times. The early Romans lived chiefly on bread 
and pot-herbs ; but when riches were introduced by their 
conquests, luxury seized all ranks, and every thing was ran- 
sacked to gratify the appetite. In the early ages, the Romans 
sat at meals, but afterwards they reclined on sumptuous couch- 
es. Their ordinary drink at feasts was wine, which they 
mixed with water, and sometimes with spices. 

38. Forum. The Forum was the principal public place in 
the city. It was a large, oblong, open space, where the as- 
semblies of the people were held, where justice was adminis- 
tered, and public business transacted. It was entirely sur- 
rounded with arched porticos, within which were spacious 
halls, called basil'icce, where courts of justice might sit for 
the decision of private affairs. 



108 ROME. 

39. Campus Martins. The Campus Martius, or Field of 
Mars, was a large plain, without the city, along the Tiber, 
where the Roman youth practised all kinds of athletic exer- 
cises and sports, and learned the use of arms. It was adorned 
with the statues of famous men, and with triumphal arches, 
columns, porticos, and other magnificent structures. 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 



1. The Middle Ages comprise a period of about a thousand 
years, from the 5th to the 15th century ; or from the subver- 
sion of the Western Empire of the Romans to that of the 
Eastern Empire. During these centuries, Europe was sunk 
in ignorance, barbarism, and superstition ; hence this period 
is styled the Dark Ages. 

2. The migration of the GotJis, Vandals, Huns, and other 
barbarous nations from the north of Europe, took place in the 
latter part of the 4th century, and the beginning of the 5th. 
These barbarians possessed themselves of the middle and 
south of Europe ; and in less than one hundred years after 
this event, almost all learning and civilization disappeared. 
Literature had been gradually declining since the reign of 
Augustus ; yet considerable remains of it existed in the Ro- 
man Empire till after the fall of the capital before the arms 
of the Goths. The darkest period was from the 6th century 
to the 12th. 

3. In these dark and miserable times, the human mind 
was neglected and debased ; books were extremely scarce, 
and were procured only at an immense price, the cost of a 
single volume being equal to that of a good house ; the com- 
mon people were wholly uneducated ; many persons of the 
highest rank and in the most important stations, were unable 
to read ; and contracts were made verbally for the want of 
persons capable of writing them. The learning which exist- 
ed was confined chiefly to ecclesiastics and monks ; yet many 
priests did not understand the service which it was their duty 
daily to recite ; and many bishops had never seen a copy of 
the Bible during their lives. 

4. The state of morals, both among the clergy and laity, 
was exceedingly low ; and Christianity haa lost almost all its 
original excellence, and was corrupted into a degrading su- 

10 



HO THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 

perstition. The political state of Europe was also character* 
ized by anarchy, violence, and rapine. 

5. The absurd modes of trial by single combat or duel, and 
also by ordeal, that is, by walking blindfold over hot bars of 
iron, or being thrown into the water, were commonly used as 
methods of discovering guilt and innocence. 

6. The most considerable empire that existed in Europe 
during the Middle Ages, was the New Empire of the West, 
which was established by Charlemagne, but which was not of 
long duration. It was during these ages that the famous and 
successful impostor Ma' hornet appeared, and the Mahometan 
or Saracen Empire flourished. From the 8th to the 13th 
centuries, the Saracens surpassed all their contemporaries in 
the cultivation of literature and science. 

7. Some of the most remarkable circumstances which 
characterize the history of Europe and the state of society, 
during this period, are the Feudal System, the Crusades, and 
Chivalry. 



THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 

1. Before the time of Ma' hornet, the Arabians were a rude 
nation, living generally in independent tribes, who traced 
their descent from Ishmael, and professed a mixed religion, 
compounded of Judaism and idolatry. They had had, as a 
nation, but little intercourse with the neighboring kingdoms. 

2. The Saracens, however, a people who inhabited the 
north-western part of Arabia, and whose name was after- 
wards applied to most of the Arabian nations, had, before this 
period, been induced, by the hope of plunder, to forsake their 
deserts, and had become alternately the support and terror of 
the tottering empires of Rome and of Persia. They sold 
their services, as mercenaries, to those who would pay most 
liberally, and their bravery generally insured victory. 

3. Arabia had afforded an asylum to the persecuted Chris- 
tians of different sects ; and at the end of the 6th century, 
Christianity had become the prevailing religion in some parts 
of the country. It was, however, a most corrupt form of 
Christianity, inculcating the worship of saints and images, 
with many other absurd and superstitious ceremonies ; and 
among both the priests and the people, a general depravity of 
manners prevailed. 



THE ARABS OR SARACENS. HI 

4. Such was the state of Arabia, when Ma'homet, or Mo- 
ham'med, that most extraordinary and successful impostor, 
appeared. He was a native of Mecca, a man of no education, 
but of great natural talents. In 609, when about 40 years 
of age, he pretended to have received a divine commission 
to propagate a new religion. He withdrew to a place of re- 
tirement, where he affirmed that he held conferences with the 
angel Gabriel. These discourses were collected into a vol- 
ume called the Koran or Alcoran, which is the Mahometan 
bible. Ma hornet performed no miracles, but appealed chiefly 
to the excellence of the doctrine contained in the Koran, and 
to the elegance of its style, as proofs of its inspiration. 

5. The two leading doctrines of his religion were these, 
namely, "There is but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet.'" 
He taught that others, at various times, as Abraham, Moses, 
and Jesus Christ, had been divinely commissioned to teach 
mankind ; but that he himself was the last and greatest of the 
prophets. He adopted some of the morality of the gospel, 
and retained many of the rites of Judaism, and some of the 
Arabian superstitions, particularly the pilgrimage to Mecca. 
But he owed his success, in a great measure, to his allowing 
his followers great latitude in licentious indulgences, and to 
his promising them, as their future reward, a paradise of sen- 
sual pleasures. 

6. He propagated his religion by the sword, stimulated the 
courage of his followers by inculcating the strictest predesti- 
narianism or fatalism, and roused their enthusiasm by the 
assurance of a martyr's crown to every one who should fall 
in battle. It was inculcated as a fundamental doctrine, that 
" to fight for the faith was an act of obedience to God ;" 
hence the Mahometans or Saracens denominated their fero- 
cious and bloody ravages holy wars. — They term their religion 
Islam or Islamism ; and call themselves Mussulmans or Mos- 
lems, that is, true believers or orthodox. 

7. Mahomet, in the beginning of his efforts, had but little 
success in making proselytes. His first converts were his 
wife Kadija, his slave Zeid, his cousin and son-in-law the 
famous Ali, and his father-in-law Abu-beker, who was a man 
of influence. These, together with ten others, were all whom 
he had persuaded to acknowledge the truth of his mission, at 
the end of three years. 

8. A popular tumult being raised against him at Mecca, 
he was compelled, in order to save his life, to escape ; and 
lie fled in disguise to Medina. His flight, or Hegira, is the 



112 THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 

Mahometan era, corresponding to the year A. D. 622. He 
was carried into Medina in triumph, by 500 of its richest 
citizens, and there assumed tne sacerdotal and regal office. 
He placed himself at the head of an army of his converts, 
and began to propagate his religion by the sword : having 
defeated his enemies, he entered his native city Mecca, in 
629, as a triumphant conqueror. He fought in person nine 
battles, subdued all Arabia, extended his conquests to Syria, 
and after a career of victory, died at Medina, at the age of 
63, ten years after his flight from Mecca to that city. 

9. Ma' hornet never hesitated to make use of the worst 
passions of his followers for the advancement of his purposes ; 
and he had frequent recourse to the most wanton cruelty and 
the grossest perfidy, in the progress of his conquests. He 
was possessed of unbounded ambition ; he affected the most 
enthusiastic devotion and ostentatious piety ; and, with the 
exception of one species of licentiousness, in which he in- 
dulged himself without restraint, he manifested a most rigid 
austerity. 

10. Ma'homet was succeeded by Ahu-beker, who is styled 
the first caliph, a subordinate title, which was assumed from 
respect and in reference to Ma'homet, and which signifies, in 
Arabic, successor, or vicar. He continued the career of con- 
quest, and with the aid of his general Calecl, defeated a great 
army of the Greek emperor Herac'lius, took Damascus, and 
died in the third year of his reign. At his death he bequeath- 
ed the sceptre to the brave Omar. " I have no occasion for 
the place/' said Omar ; " But the place has occasion for you," 
replied the dying caliph. 

11. Omar, with the assistance of his favorite general Obei- 
dah, in one campaign, deprived the Greek empire of Syria, 
Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, and Chaldea ; and in a second cam- 
paign, he reduced to the Mussulman dominion and religion, 
the whole empire of Persia. His army, under Amrou, took 
Alexandria, and subdued Egypt. 

12. Amrou being requested to spare the Alexandrian libra- 
ry, wrote for directions respecting it to Omar, who returned 
the following answer, characteristic of an ignorant barbarian 
and fanatic : "If these writings agree with the Koran, they 
are useless, and need not be preserved ; if they disagree, they 
are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." The sentence 
was rigorously executed ; and the whole library, said to con- 
tain from 500,000 to 700,000 volumes, was burnt. This was 
the greatest loss to literature that is recorded in history. 



THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 113 

13. Omar, during a reign of 10 years, reduced 36,000 
cities and villages to his obedience, demolished 4,000 Chris- 
tian churches or temples, and erected 1,400 mosques for 
Mahometan worship. He was finally assassinated, and suc- 
ceeded by Othman, who added Bactria'na and a part of Tar- 
tary, to the dominion of the caliphs. On his death, Ali, who 
had married Fat'ema, the daughter of Mahomet, was elected 
to the caliphate. He is reputed the bravest and most virtuous 
of the caliphs, and his reign was glorious, though of only five 
years' duration. 

14. In the space of less than half a century, the Saracens 
raised an empire more extensive than what then remained of 
the Roman ; and in 100 years from the flight of Mahomet 
from Mecca to Medina, the dominions of his successors ex- 
tended from India to the Atlantic, comprehending the widely 
distant regions of Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, 
the North of Africa, and Spain. 

15. The reio-n of Ali forms a remarkable era in the Mus- 
sulman history, on account of a schism which then arose, 
and which still exists. The partisans of Ali consider Abu- 
beker, Omar, and Othman, as usurpers, and are branded by 
their adversaries with the name of Shiites or Sectaries. The 
opponents of Ali hold the first three caliphs in veneration ; 
they style themselves Sonnites or Traditionaries, because they 
follow the traditions : whereas the Shiites acknowledge the 
Koran only. These two parties hate and anathematize each 
other. The Persians are of the sect of Ali ; the Turks are 
Sonnites and Ottomans, or disciples of Othman. 

16. Ali removed the seat of the Mussulman sovereigns from 
Mecca to Cufa, on the Euphrates ; and in 763, it was remov- 
ed by Almansor to Bagdad ; hence they are styled caliphs of 
Bagdad. Next to the caliphate of Bagdad, the other caliph- 
ate most illustrious in Saracenic history, was that of Cordova 
in Spain. Walid, who reigned at Cufa in the fore part of 
the 8th century, was the first that founded a hospital, and 
built caravansaries or public inns, for the accommodation of 
travellers. 

17. The first race of caliphs were styled Ommi'ades, the 
first of whom was Moawiyah ; of these 19 reigned in succes- 
sion ; after which began the dynasty of the Abbas' sides, who 
were descended from Abbas, the uncle of Mahomet. Almanr 
sor, the second caliph of this race, built Bagdad, and made it 
the seat of the Saracen empire, and it became the largest and 
most splendid city in the world. He was a liberal patron of 

10* 



114 THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 

learning and science ; and it was he who first introduced the 
cultivation of them among the Saracens. 

18. The reign of Haroun al Raschid, the 25th caliph, who 
was contemporary with Charlemagne, was the most splendid 
of the whole dynasty, and is regarded as the Augustan age of 
Saracen or Arabic literature. This prince rendered himself 
illustrious by his valor, generosity, and benevolence ; by his 
equitable government, and his patronage of learned men. It 
is to these times that a great part of our proverbs and roman- 
ces must be referred ; and the Thousand and one Nights have 
rendered Haroun al Raschid more celebrated than his victo- 
rious march through Asia. Schools of learning were, at this 
period, established in the principal towns. The sciences 
chiefly cultivated, were medicine, geometry, and astronomy : 
poetry and fiction also commanded attention. Some of the 
successors of Haroun al Raschid, particularly his son Al Ma- 
mun, followed his footsteps in patronizing learning. Litera- 
ture was also successfully cultivated by the Saracens of Spain 
and Africa. 

19. From the time of the removal of the seat of govern- 
ment to Bagdad, the importance of Arabia began to decline. 
Many chiefs of the interior provinces rose to assert their in- 
dependence, and withdrew themselves from the civil jurisdic- 
tion of the caliph, regarding him only as the head of their 
religion. 

20. The Saracens might have established an immense em- 
pire, if they had acknowledged but one head ; but as their con- 
quests extended, their states soon became disunited. Spain, 
Egypt, Morocco, and India had, at an early period, their 
separate sovereigns, who continued to respect the caliph of 
Bagdad as the successor of the prophet, but acknowledged no 
temporal subjection to his government. 

21. The house of Abbas furnished 37 caliphs, who reigned 
in succession. Bagdad continued to be the seat of the Sara- 
cen empire 490 years, during which long period it sustained 
several obstinate sieges, and was the scene of many a bloody 
revolution. At length, in the 656th year of the Hegira, A. 
B. 1258, Bagdad was taken by Hulaku, the grandson of the 
celebrated Genghis Khan : the reigning caliph, Al Mostasem, 
was put to death ; the caliphate was abolished, and the Sara- 
cen empire terminated. 

22. The immediate successors of Mahomet found them- 
selves under the necessity of affecting that enthusiastic de- 
votion, and rigid austerity, by which he had established his 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. H5 

character as a prophet, and his power as a sovereign. AH 
the time they could spare from the duties of royalty, was spent 
in prayer or preaching before the sepulchre of the impostor. 
Their manners were modest and unassuming ; they affected 
great humility, practised various mortifications, and conde- 
scended to perform the meanest offices. Satisfied with the 
power of royalty, they affected to disdain its pomp. But when 
their power was confirmed beyond the fear of revolution, they 
forgot the real or affected virtues, which their predecessors 
had found it necessary to practise, and became distinguished 
for their oppression, their love of show and magnificence, 
their luxury and effeminacy. 

23. As the caliphs succeeded to both the regal and sacer- 
dotal offices which Mahomet had assumed, they were the 
most absolute monarchs in the world. No privileged order 
was recognized in the Saracen empire, to impose a salutary 
restraint on the will of the despots. The Koran was, indeed, 
prescribed as the rule of their actions, and it inculcated the 
duties of humanity and justice ; but they were themselves the 
interpreters and judges of that code ; nor did any Mussulman 
dare dispute their infallibility. Their office, uniting spiritual 
with temporal power, bore a striking resemblance to that of 
the popes ; nor did the resemblance fail, with regard to pomp, 
haughtiness, and oppression. 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

1. The Feudal System had its origin among the barbarous 
nations, the Goths, Vandals, Huns, Lombards, &c, that over- 
ran the countries of Europe, on the decline of the Roman 
empire ; but it is supposed to have received its earliest im- 
provement among the Lombards. It was adopted by Charle- 
magne, and eventually by most of the princes of Europe ; 
and it is generally believed to have been first introduced into 
England by William the Conqueror. 

2. When the northern barbarians had made a conquest of 
the provinces of the Roman empire, the conquered lands 
were distributed by lot ; hence they were called allotted or 



116 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

allodial; and they were held in entire sovereignty by the 
different chieftains, without any other obligation existing be- 
tween them, than that of uniting in case of war, for the com- 
mon defence. The king or captain-general, who led on his 
respective tribes to conquest, naturally received by far the 
largest portion of territory for his own share ; and his princi- 
pal followers, to whom he granted lands, bound themselves 
merely to render him military services. 

3. The example of the king was imitated by his courtiers, 
who distributed, under similar conditions, portions of their 
estates to their dependents. Thus a feudal kingdom became 
a military establishment, and had the appearance of a victo- 
rious army encamped under its officers in different parts of 
a country ; every captain or baron considering himself in- 
dependent of his sovereign, except during a period of na- 
tional war. 

4. Possessed of wide tracts of country, and residing at a 
distance from the capital, these barons or lords erected strong 
and gloomy castles or fortresses in places of difficult access ; 
and not only oppressed the people, and slighted the civil mag- 
istracy of the state, but were often in a condition to set the 
authority of the crown itself at defiance. 

5. The fundamental principle of this system was, that all 
the lands were originally granted out by the sovereign, and 
were held of the crown. The grantor was called lord, and 
they to whom he made grants, were styled his feudatories or 
vassals. As military service was the only burden to which 
the feudatories were subjected, this service was esteemed 
honorable, and the names of freeman and soldier were sy- 
nonymous. 

6. The great mass of the people who cultivated the lands, 
were styled serfs or villains, and were in a state of miserable 
servitude. They were not permitted to bear arms, nor suf- 
fered to leave the estates of their lords. 

7. The feudal government, though well calculated for de- 
fence, was very defective in its provisions for the interior 
order of society. A kingdom resembled a cluster of confed- 
erated states under a common head ; and though the barons 
or nobles owed a species of allegiance to the king, yet when 
obedience was refused, it could be enforced only by war. 

8. The bond of union being feeble, and the sources of dis- 
cord innumerable, a kingdom often exhibited a scene of an- 
archy, turbulence, and war ; and such was, in fact, the state 
of Europe, with respect to interior government, from the 7th 
to the 1 1th century. 



THE CRUSADES. 1J7 

9. Some of the principal causes of the gradual overthrow 
of the Feudal System, were the crusades, the formation of 
cities into communities with special privileges, the change of 
the mode of war which followed the invention of gunpowder, 
the extension of commerce, the increase and distribution of 
wealth, and the diffusion of knowledge. It still exists, how- 
ever, in a qualified degree, in some parts of Europe, particu- 
larly in Russia and Poland, and in some portions of Germany. 



THE CRUSADES. 



1. The Crusades, or Holy Wars, were military expeditions, 
undertaken by the Christians of Europe, for the deliverance 
of Palestine, and particularly the sepulchre of our Savior, 
from the dominion of the Mahometans. These enterprises 
involved all the nations of Western Europe ; yet in most of 
them the French took the Lead. In 637, Jerusalem was con- 
quered by the Saracens, who were induced, by self-interest, 
to permit Christian pilgrims to visit the city. But when the 
Turks, a wild and ferocious tribe of Tartars, got possession 
of Jerusalem, in 1065, the pilgrims were no longer safe, but 
were exposed to insult and robbery. The dangers of pil- 
grimage, painted in the most frightful colors, by those who 
returned from the holy city, threatened the discontinuance 
of what was regarded, in that age of ignorance and supersti- 
tion, a sacred duty. 

2. Peter the Hermit, a native of Amiens, in France, hav- 
ing returned from a painful pilgrimage, conceived the design 
of arming the sovereigns and people of Europe, for the pur- 
pose of rescuing the holy sepulchre out of the hands of the 
infidels. With this view, he travelled from kingdom to king- 
dom, describing the sufferings of the pilgrims with the most 
inflammatory pathos, and calling aloud for vengeance. He 
exhibited, in his own person, a complete specimen of monk- 
ish austerity and frantic enthusiasm. His body, which was 
covered with a coarse garment, seemed wasted with fasting; 
his head was bare ; his feet naked ; he bore aloft in his hand 
a large and weighty crucifix ; and his prayers were frequent,, 
long, and loud. He accosted every person whom he met a 
and entered, without hesitation, the palaces of the great, an<5 
the cottages of the poor. 



118 THE CRUSADES. 

3. Urban II, the reigning pontiff, pitched upon this en- 
thusiast as a fit person to commence the execution of a grand 
design, which had before been entertained by the popes, 
particularly Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), of arming all Chris- 
tendom against the Mahometans. The project was opened 
in two general councils, which were held at Placcntia and 
Clermont, and attended by many thousands. The pope him- 
self harangued the multitude, and proposed that the cross, 
which was made of red stuff attached to the right shoulder, 
should be the badge of the combatants ; and from this badge 
the expeditions were termed crusades. Plenary indulgence 
and full absolution were proclaimed to all who should devote 
themselves to the service. 

4. An immense multitude of ambitious and disorderly no- 
bles, with their dependents, eager for enterprise and rapine, 
and assured of eternal salvation, immediately took the cross. 
Robbers, incendiaries, murderers, and thousands of inferior 
offenders, readily embraced the opportunity of making expia- 
tion for their sins ; and their zeal was increased by the hope 
of plunder and of sensual gratification. Peter the Hermit 
assumed the office of general, for which he was totally unqual- 
ified, and placing himself at the head of 80,000 recruits, com- 
menced his march towards the East in the spring of 1096. 
This army was followed by a promiscuous assemblage of 
200,000 persons, more like the collected banditti of Europe, 
than a regularly constituted soldiery. The Jews of Germany 
were their first victims ; but their outrages in Hungary and 
Bulgaria, drew upon them a severe retaliation from the in- 
habitants, so that not more than a third part of this undisci- 
plined multitude arrived with Peter at Constantinople. These 
were met, by sultan Sol'yman, on the plain of Nice, and almost 
totally destroyed, without ever having seen Jerusalem. 

5. But a more valuable part of the expedition was still in 
reserve, and soon after arrived at Constantinople. These 
were men properly trained and appointed, led by experienced 
and able generals. The supreme command was conferred 
on Godfrey of Bouillon, who was supported by Baldwin his 
brother, Robert, duke of Normandy (son of William the Con- 
queror of England), Hugh, count of Vermandois, Raymond, 
count of Thoulouse, and various other distinguished princes 
of Europe. When reviewed in the neighborhood of Nice, 
they amounted to 100,000 horse, and 600,000 foot, including 
a train of women and followers. 

6. Having taken Nice, and defeated Sol'yman, they pro- 
ceeded eastward, conquered Edessa, took the city of Antioch, 



THE CRUSADES. jjg 

Tanquished an army of 600,000 Saracens , and being reduced 
to little more than a twentieth part of their original number, 
advanced to Jerusalem, which, after a siege of 40 days, was 
taken by storm ; and the whole of its Mahometan and Jewish 
inhabitants were barbarously massacred. The heroic God- 
frey was proclaimed king of Jerusalem by the troops, and he 
soon after defeated the sultan with an immense army at As- 
calon ; but after having reigned one year, he was compelled 
to give up his kingdom to the pope's legate. 

7. The conquerors divided Syria and Palestine into four 
states ; and seeing their object accomplished, they began to 
return to Europe. The Turks gradually recovered their 
strength ; and the crusaders, who remained in Asia, finding 
themselves surrounded by foes, were under the necessity of 
soliciting aid from Christendom. An army of adventurers, 
collected by Hugh, the brother of Philip I. of France, met 
with a fate similar to that of the army under Peter the Her- 
mit, being cut off in hostilities, first with the Greeks, and 
afterwards with Solyman. 

8. The second crusade was preached by the famous St. 
Bernard, in 1147; and Louis VII. of France, and Conrad 
III. of Germany, v/ith 300,000 of their subjects, were per- 
suaded to assume the cross. Conrad took the lead, but his 
army was almost entirely extirpated near Ico'nium ; the 
French, under Louis, were totally defeated near Laodice'a; 
and the two monarchs, after witnessing the destruction of the 
finest armies which their countries had produced, returned 
with shame to their dominions. 

9. The illustrious Sal'adin, who, about the year 1174, 
raised himself from the condition of an attendant of the ca- 
liphs, to the sovereignty of Egypt, Arabia, Syria, and Persia, 
formed the design of recovering Palestine from the Chris- 
tians. Having defeated their army in the battle of Tiberias, 
he besieged and took Jerusalem, and made its sovereign, Guy 
of Lusignan, prisoner. 

10. The reigning sovereigns of the principal states of Eu- 
rope, Philip Augustus of France, Richard I. of England, and 
Frederic Barbarossa of Germany, were men of eminent tal- 
ents ; and by the influence of pope Clement III., they were 
induced to unite in a third crusade. The emperor Frederic 
was drowned in Cilicia, in crossing the small river Cydnus, 
and his army mostly destroyed. The English and French 
were more fortunate : they took Ptolema'is ; but Richard and 
Philip quarrelled from jealousy of each other's glory, and the 
French monarch returned in disgust to his countrv. 



120 THE CRUSADES. 

1 L Richard ably sustained the contest with the sultan 
Saladin, whom he defeated near As 1 colon : but his army was 
reduced by famine, fatigue, and intestine quarrels. Return- 
ing through Germany, unaccompanied by his troops, he was 
arrested, and kept in prison, till an immense ransom was pro- 
cured from his subjects. Before his departure from Syria, 
he had made a peace with Saladin, who soon after died. 

12. Notwithstanding the misery which had been the uni- 
form result of the crusades, such was the madness of the age, 
that fresh adventurers were ever ready to renew them. In 
1202, during the pontificate of the ambitious pope Innocent 
III., Baldwin, count of Flanders, collected an army to act 
against the Mahometans in a fourth crusade ; but he began, as 
others had done, with the eastern Christians. Arriving at Con- 
stantinople at a time when there was a dispute respecting the 
succession, his interference tempted one claimant to assassi- 
nate his rival, and Baldwin, after despatching the other by a 
public execution, and indulging his followers with the plun- 
der of the city, took possession of the imperial throne of the 
Eastern Empire. Satisfied with this splendid acquisition, he 
attempted nothing against the Saracens. 

13. John de Brienne, a French nobleman, at the head of 
100,000 men, made a descent upon Egypt, with the design 
of destroying the power of its sultan at the seat of government 
After a long siege, he took Damietta ; but his army being subse- 
quently surrounded by an inundation of the Nile, he was forced 
to give up his conquests, and surrender his person as a hostage. 

14. The crusading fanaticism in Europe had, at length, 
begun to languish ; but it was again revived by St. Louis IX. 
of France, a monarch alike distinguished for being deeply 
imbued with the superstition of the age, and for possessing 
every amiable and heroic virtue. After four years' prepara- 
tion, he set out for the Holy Land, with his queen, his three 
brothers, and all the knights of France. 

15. He began his enterprise by invading Egypt, and after 
losing one half of his numerous army by sickness, he was 
Wrrly defeated and taken prisoner by the Saracens. Hav- 
ing ransomed himself and his followers, he proceeded to Pal- 
estine, where he remained for a considerable time, and then 
returning to France, he reigned wisely and prosperously for 
13 years. But the same frenzy assailing him again, he em- 
barked on another crusade against the Moors in Africa, and 
laid siege to Tunis, near which, he and the greater part of 
his army were destroyed by a pestilence. This was the last 
of these mad enterprises. 



THE CRUSADES. ]21 

16. Effects of the Crusades. The crusades owed their 
origin to the fanaticism and superstition of an ignorant and 
barbarous age, superadded to ambition, love of military 
achievement, and a desire of plunder. No other military 
enterprise ever commanded the attention of Europe so gene- 
rally or so long ; and no other affords a more memorable 
monument of human folly. They assumed the sacred char- 
acter of religion, and were styled Holy Wars. Their tracks 
marked the three quarters of the world, which were then 
known, with blood ; and for nearly two centuries, they afflict- 
ed almost every family of Europe with the most painful pri- 
vations. It is computed that during their continuance, more 
than two millions of Europeans were buried in the East. 
Those who survived were soon blended with the Mahometan 
population of Syria, and in a few years, not a vestige of the 
Christian conquest remained. 

17. These barbarous expeditions, though productive of so 
much misery, had, nevertheless, a powerful influence in pro- 
ducing a great and beneficial change in the aspect of society. 
Their effects were observable, in a greater or less degree, on 
the political condition, \he m manners and customs, the commerce, 
the literature, and the religion of Christendom. 

18. At the commencement of the crusades, the Feudal 
System prevailed throughout Europe. The barons who engag- 
ed in them, were obliged to sell their lands, in order to pro- 
cure the means of conveying their troops to a foreign country 
In this way the aristocracy was weakened, wealth more widely 
distributed, and the lower classes began to acquire property, 
influence, and a spirit of independence. Kings, likewise, 
raised money by selling to towns immunities and privileges, 
such as the right of electing their own magistrates, and being 
governed by their own municipal laws. 

19. In the ages immediately preceding the crusades, the 
manners and mode of life which prevailed in Europe, were 
gross and barbarous ; and so, indeed, they continued for a 
long time after their termination ; yet a gradual improvement 
was soon visible. Travelling in foreign countries has a ten- 
dency to enlarge the views, and polish the manners. In the 
East, particularly in Constantinople, the crusaders became 
acquainted with modes of life superior to what they had been 
accustomed to in their own countries, and of which, on their 
return, they were ready to recommend the adoption. The 
crusades gave rise to various orders of knighthood, especially 

U 



122 CHIVALRY. 

those of St. John of Jerusalem, and the Templars. They im- 
bued chivalry with religion, and brought it to maturity. 

20. These enterprises had a most beneficial influence on 
commerce and the arts. Commerce had been carried on upon 
only a very limited scale ; and European nations had never 
had their attention sufficiently drawn to the numerous advan- 
tages of water-transport, till the destructive disasters of the 
first crusaders, in attempting a march by land, forced upon 
the minds of their followers the expediency of conveying their 
troops by water. By the consequent frequency of voyages to 
Palestine, the arts of navigation and ship-building were rapidly 
improved ; and from this period may be dated the commercial 
prosperity of Pisa, Genoa, and Venice. 

21. The crusades, although immediately injurious both to 
literature and religion, were, nevertheless, ultimately beneficial. 
They commenced at a time of the profoundest ignorance and 
the grossest superstition ; (nearly all that remained of ancient 
art and science being, at that period, confined to Constanti- 
nople and the more enlightened of the Saracens ;) during 
their continuance, military fame was the chief object of am- 
bition to all who aspired to distinction ; and that blind and 
fanatical devotion to the will of the priesthood, without which 
the people could never have been seduced into so wild an en- 
terprise, continued undiminished. But after two centuries 
of disaster, Europe began to suspect the folly of these expe- 
ditions, and to doubt the infallibility of their promoters ; and 
the human mind was gradually prepared for an emancipation 
from bigotry and servility. 

22. It may be observed, that if, by the superintendence of 
Providence, these benefits to society grew out of the crusades, 
they were diametrically opposite to what their projectors in- 
tended ; that these were results which they had neither the 
wisdom to foresee, nor the virtue to design. 



CHIVALRY. 

1. Chivalry was an institution in which valor, gallantry, 
and religion were strangely blended. It constitutes one of 
the most remarkable features in the history of European na- 
tions in the Middle Ages ; and, during several centuries, it 
produced a wonderful influence upon their opinions, habits, 



CHIVALRY. 123 

and manners ; the effects of which may still be traced. Its 
distinguishing features were a romantic spirit of adventure ; a 
love of arms, and of the rewards of valor ; an eagerness to 
succor the distressed, and to redress wrongs ; high sentiments 
of honor and religion ; and a devoted and respectful attach- 
ment to the female sex. 

2. The early history of chivalry is involved in obscurity ; 
and different theories have been formed with regard to the 
period, the nation, and the circumstances, to which it owed 
its origin. But the best supported account appears to be that 
which fixes its origin, as a regular institution, in the 11th 
century. Before this period, however, the great principles of 
it were to be found in the manners and customs of the Gothic 
nations, among whom the profession of arms was the only 
employment which was esteemed honorable, and who were 
distinguished for their delicate and respectful gallantry to the 
female sex. It was imbodied into form and regularity by the 
Feudal System ; and was afterwards brought to maturity and 
splendor by the Crusades, and, by the change wrought upon 
it by these expeditions, was rendered as much a religious, as 
a military institution. Some improvements in it are supposed 
also to have been derived from the Saracens. 

3. Chivalry pervaded almost all parts of Europe ; yet Spain 
and France appear to have been the countries in which it 
was first regularly formed into a system, and where it flourish- 
ed in its greatest purity and splendor. In Germany also, at 
an early period, it arrived at maturity ; but in England it 
was of later birth, and slower growth. 

4. The sons of noblemen, who were destined for chivalry, 
entered, at the age of seven years, on a course of education, 
which was to prepare them for the performance of its duties, 
and the enjoyment of its honors. The place of their educa- 
tion was the castle of their father, or of some neighboring 
noble. From the age of 7 to 14, the appellation given to 
these boys was page or varlet ; in old English ballads, child; 
and at 14 they were raised to the rank, and received the title 
of esquire, and were then authorized to bear arms. 

5. They were kept in constant and active employment, 
and waited on the master and mistress of the castle at home 
and abroad, and became accustomed to obedience and cour- 
teous demeanor. They were surrounded by noble ladies and 
valiant knights ; and the first impressions made on their minds 
we.e those of love, gallantry, honor, and bravery. They were 
taught to reverence chivalry as containing every thing that 



124 CHIVALRY. 

was alluring and honorable ; and that the only means of at- 
taining the highest honors, were devotion to the female sex, 
and skill and courage in warfare. 

6. By the ladies of the castle they were taught, at the same 
time, the rudiments of religion and love. " The love of God 
and the ladies," says Hallam, " was enjoined as a single duty. 
He who was faithful and true to his mistress, was held, sure 
of salvation in the theology of the castles." In order that 
they might have opportunity to practise, in some degree, the 
instructions which they received, it was customary for each 
youth to select some young, accomplished, and virtuous lady, 
at whose feet he displayed all his gallantry, and who under- 
took to polish his manners. 

7. The esquires were employed in various subordinate 
offices in the castles, and as attendants on the knights, till they 
arrived at 21, which was the proper age for admitting them to 
the full honors of knighthood. The candidate was required 
to prepare himself by ablutions, by rigid fasting, by passing 
the night in prayer, and by making a solemn confession of 
his sins ; and, as a type of the purity of manners which would 
be required of him, he was clothed in white. 

8. Having performed the preliminary rites, he then entered 
a church, and after an examination, if he were judged 
worthy of admission to the order of knighthood, he received 
the sacrament, and took an oath, consisting of 26 articles, in 
which, among other things, he swore that he would be a good, 
brave, loyal, just, generous, and gentle knight, a champion 
of the church and the clergy, a protector of ladies, and a re- 
dresser of the wrongs of widows and orphans. 

9. While upon his knees, he received from the hands of 
the knights and the ladies the insignia of chivalry, his spurs, 
cuirass, coat of mail, and the other parts of his armor, and, 
in the last place, his sword. The most distinguished cheva- 
lier then dubbed him, or bestowed on him the accolade, by 
giving him a slight blow on the shoulder or cheek with his 
sword, which has been interpreted as an emblem of the last 
affront which it was lawful for him to endure. 

10. The most important part of the equipments of a knight, 
was his horse ; his distinguishing weapon was the lance ; his 
other offensive arms consisted of a sword, dagger, battle-axe, 
and maces. His dress consisted of a long flowing robe, which 
reached down to his heels. 

11. "The virtues and endowments that were necessary 
*o form an accomplished knight," says Dr. Henry, " in the 



CHIVALRY. 125 

flourishing times of chivalry, were such as these ; — beauty, 
strength, and agility of body ; great dexterity in dancing, 
wrestling, hunting, hawking, riding, tilting, and every other 
manly exercise ; the virtues of piety, chastity, modesty, cour- 
tesy, loyalty, liberality, sobriety ; and above all, an inviolable 
attachment to truth, and an invincible courage." 

12. Such was the estimation in which knighthood was 
held, that, for a long time, no sovereign could be crowned till 
he had been knighted. Whoever had been dubbed became, 
as it were, a citizen of universal chivalry, and possessed va- 
rious privileges and dignities, which were not limited to the 
territory of his sovereign, but extended throughout a great 
part of Europe. He had a right to roam through the world 
in quest of adventures, which, whether just or not in their 
purpose, were always esteemed honorable in proportion as 
they were perilous. 

13. He was authorized to propose a trial of skill with the 
lance to all those of his order whom he met, and to combat 
them with the utmost fury, if they did not acknowledge the 
lady to whom he had devoted himself, and whom they had 
never seen, the most beautiful in the world. When he chal- 
lenged them to single combat, it was in the name of his mis- 
tress ; and he established her unparalleled beauty by van- 
quishing his antagonist, and compelling him to acknowledge 
her superior charms. The portrait, the device, the livery, or 
even the most trifling gift of his mistress, he cherished with 
the utmost fondness. The crest of his helmet was ornament- 
ed with the favors which she had bestowed upon him. When 
the sovereign led his army to the attack, his never-failing in- 
junction was, " Let every one think of his mistress." 

14. The influence of chivalry was not limited to either 
sex. The manners of the ladies of rank were necessarily 
polite and courteous ; for such they taught those of the chev- 
aliers to be ; and it was their highest ambition to deserve and 
obtain the love of a valiant knight. As the laws of the insti- 
tution made it the duty of a knight to protect the chastity and 
honor of the ladies, and forbade his speaking ill of them, or 
tamely hearing them spoken ill of by others, it was incumbent 
on him to warn them against the commission of every thing 
that might lower them in his opinion. 

15. Strictly decorous and respectful in his behavior towards 
them, he expected they would never forfeit their claim to such 
behavior. If, however, they transgressed the laws of modesty 
or wudence, he did not fail to stigmatize their failings in a 

11* 



1^6 CHIVALRY, 

way that would be keenly felt. If he passed the castle of one 
of this character, he marked, in such a manner as could not 
be mistaken, the dwelling of a lady unworthy to receive a true 
chevalier. 

16. As the knights were ambitious to gain the esteem of 
the fair sex, by their heroic exploits, and the protection which 
they afforded them ; so the ladies were ambitious to merit 
such protection by their virtue. In accordance with this is 
the language of Spenser : 

It hath been through all ages ever seen, 

That, with the praise of arms and chivalry, 
The prize of beauty still hath joined been ; 

And that for reason's special privity : 
For either doth on other much rely ; 

For he, me seems, most fit the fair to serve, 
That can her best defend from villany ; 

And she most fit his service doth deserve, 
That fairest is, and from her faith will never swerve. 

17. Chivalry especially enjoined the virtues of hospitality, 
humanity, and courtesy. Every true and loyal knight was 
expected to have the door of his castle constantly open. As 
soon as one chevalier entered the castle of another, he con- 
sidered himself at home, and was treated as if he were so ; 
every thing that could contribute to his comfort and his lux- 
ury, was at his command. If he arrived wounded, every 
possible care was taken of him by the ladies, both young and 
old, who were proud of having in their possession remedies 
proper for such occasions. To a vanquished foe the most 
scrupulous and delicate attention was paid : he was treated 
rather as a conqueror, than as one who had been conquered. 

18. The favorite amusement and exercise of the knights 
consisted in justs and tournaments, the most splendid of which 
were celebrated at coronations, royal marriages, and distin- 
guished victories. " Every scenic performance of modern 
times," says Hallam, " must be tame in comparison of these 
animating scenes. At a tournament, the space inclosed with- 
in the lists was surrounded by sovereign princes and their 
noblest barons, by knights of established renown, and all that 
rank and beauty had most distinguished among the fair. 
Covered with steel, and known only by their emblazoned 
shields, or by the favors of their mistresses, a still prouder 
bearing, the combatants rushod forward to a strife without 
enmity, but not without danger. 

19. " Victory at a tournament was little less glorious, and 
perhaps, at the moment, more exquisitely felt, than in the 



CHIVALRY. 127 

field ; since no battle could assemble such witnesses of valor. 
' Honor to the sons of the brave !' resounded, amidst the din 
of martial music, from the lips of the minstrels, as the conquer- 
or advanced to receive the prize from his queen or his mis- 
tress ; while the surrounding multitude acknowledged, in his 
prowess of that day, an augury of triumphs that might, in 
more serious contests, be blended with those of his country.'* 

20. Absurd and ridiculous as the institution of chivalry 
appears, yet it had a powerful influence in producing a favor- 
able change in the manners of society in a barbarous age ; 
and was wonderfully adapted to the taste and genius of mar- 
tial nobles. It infused humanity into war, at a time when 
the disposition of the age made it almost the constant busi- 
ness of life, and the ruling passion of persons of every rank : 
it introduced courtesy of manners, when men were rude and 
uncultivated : it exacted and produced a scrupulous adherence 
to truth, at a time when its obligations were feebly felt, and 
the temptations to falsehood were numerous : it imparted an ad- 
ditional impulse and motive to a respectful and delicate atten- 
tion to the female sex, when such attention was particularly 
necessary to them. 

21. As chivalry rose to splendor, and was imbodied into 
form, by the feudal system, so it fell along with it. The in- 
vention of gunpowder, and the consequent change in the 
mode of war ; the invention of the art of printing, and the 
diffusion of knowledge ; the extension of commerce, and the 
increase and distribution of wealth, gradually produced the 
destruction of the feudal system, and put a period to the ex- 
istence of chivalry. It arose principally from the peculiar 
state of society, the evils of which it was calculated, in seme 
degree, to remove o~ alleviate ; it fell when that state of society 
and those evils Lad given way to the general diffusion of 
wealth and of knowledge. 

22. " The wild exploits of those romantic knights," says 
Dr. Robertson, " who sallied forth in quest of adventures, are 
well known, and have been treated with proper ridicule. 
The political and permanent effects of the spirit of chivalry 
have been less observed. Perhaps the humanity which ac- 
companies all the operations of war, the refinements of gal- 
lantry, and the point of honor, the three chief circumstances 
which distinguish modern from ancient manners, may be 
ascribed, in a great measure, to this whimsical institution, 
seemingly of little benefit to mankind. The sentiments 
which chivalry inspired had a wonderful influence on the 



138 CHIVALRY. 

manners and conduct during the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th 
centuries. They were so deeply rooted, that they continued 
to operate after the vigor and reputation of the institution itself 
began to decline." 

23. But the actual morals of chivalry were by no means 
pure : its principles, like those of other institutions, were 
much superior to the practice of its professors : and it fell far 
short of establishing and preserving that purity in the inter- 
course of the sexes, which it inculcated. The poetry of the 
Troubadours, and the tales and romances which describe 
the manners of chivalry, all afford evidence of dissolute 
morals. 

24. The knights professed to redress wrongs, to relieve the 
oppressed, and to protect the defenceless ; but in performing 
these very acts, they were not unfrequently guilty of the 
grossest injustice and violence. Chivalry nourished a per- 
nicious thirst for military renown, and cherished a love of 
war, founded more on feelings of personal resentment, than on 
those of public spirit. It, indeed, taught mankind to carry the 
civilities of peace into the operations of war, and to mingle 
politeness with the use of the sword ; but it also gave birth to 
a punctilious refinement, and sowed the seeds of that fantastic 
honor, the bitterness of whose fruits is still felt in the mod- 
ern practice of duelling. 

25. The origin of the duel is traced to the Gothic nations. 
Under the feudal system, and during the age of chivalry, the 
duel was warmly patronized. It so far prevailed among the 
Germans, Danes, and Franks, that none were exempted from 
it but women, sick people, cripples, and such as were under 
21 years of age, or above 60. Even ecclesiastics, priests, 
and monks, were obliged to find a champion to fight in their 
stead. 

26. Laws and regulations were defined for it, in most of 
the kingdoms of Europe ; forms of prayer were likewise pre- 
scribed ; and the combatants prepared themselves by taking 
the sacrament. It was then resorted to as a method of discov- 
ering truth and preventing perjury, with the belief of the in- 
terference of Providence for the punishment of the guilty, and 
the protection of the innocent. It is now practised as a mode 
of private revenge ; and its use is no longer supported by any 
plea derived from reason, religion, or superstition. 



MODERN HISTORY. 



1. Different periods, as has already been mentioned, 
have been adopted by different historians for the commence- 
ment of Modern History, as the Christian era, the downfall 
of the Western Empire of the Romans, the establishment of 
the New Empire of the West under Charlemagne, and (when 
considered as distinct from the history of the Middle Ages) 
the downfall of the Eastern Empire. 

2. But in treating of the history of the several European 
states, the most convenient method is to begin with the com- 
mencement of each respectively, without being confined to 
any one common period. No one of the present sovereign- 
ties of Europe, with the exception of France, traces its origin, 
by any authentic data, further back than the commencement 
of the 9th century. 

3. The period that succeeded the downfall of the Eastern 
Empire, is one of the most important, and interesting in the 
history of man. On casting an eye back to this period, we 
see a flood of light suddenly bursting upon the world ; man- 
kind waking, as from profound sleep, to a life of activity and 
bold adventure ; ignorance, barbarism, superstition, and feu- 
dal slavery, retreating before advancing civilization, knowl- 
edge, religion, and freedom. 

4. Some of the principal causes which produced the great 
and beneficial changes in the state of society which then took 
place, were the invention of the mariner's compass, of gun- 
powder, and of the art of printing ; the discovery of America, 
and of a maritime passage to India round the Cape of Good 
Hope ; the dispersion of the literary men of Constantinople 
to the w T estern parts of Europe, and the Reformation in re- 
ligion. 

5 In the history of European commerce, the associatioa 
of the Hanse Towns holds a conspicuous place. This asso» 



130 MODERN HISTORY. 

ciation, which commenced in the 13th century, eventually 
embraced most of the great commercial towns in Europe, 
and was in its most flourishing state in the 14th and 15th 
centuries. 

6. From the time of the crusades to the 15th century, the 
Italians, more especially the cities of Venice, Genoa, and 
Pisa, had the chief management of European commerce. In 
the maritime discoveries, and the commercial enterprise of 
the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain took the 
lead ; and on the discovery of a passage to India round the 
Cape of Good Hope, the commerce of Europe was turned 
into new channels, and the Italian cities declined. 

7. Spain and Portugal have long since lost their former 
comparative rank in commerce, wealth, and power. They 
were succeeded in maritime enterprise and activity by the 
Netherlands, Holland, and England, which became, in turn, 
the most commercial states in Europe. 

8. The most powerful monarchies in Europe, at the pres- 
ent time, are England, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia ; 
the last three of which are comparatively very modern. The 
history of England is to Americans more important than that 
of any other European country ; and next to that in impor- 
tance, is the history of France. 



FRANCE. 131 

FRANCE. 

SECTION I. 

Merovingian Kings : Carlovingian Kings : Charlemagne, 
Sfc.—From A. D. 420 to 987. 

1. The history of France and that of England are inti- 
mately connected, as they have, for many centuries, been 
rival states, and, during a great part of the time, engaged in 
war with each other. The kings of England, for a long time, 
assumed also the title of Icing of France, as they held posses- 
sions in that country, more or less extensive, from the time 
of William the Conqueror to that of queen Mary. 

2. The ancestors of the modern French were the Gauls 
or Celts, an enterprising and warlike people ; and it has been 
frequently remarked, that there is a striking similitude be- 
tween the descendants and their progenitors. Ancient Gaul 
comprehended, in addition to modern France, the Nether- 
lands, and the western part of Germany. It was conquered 
and annexed to the Roman empire by Julius Casar, 51 years 
before the Christian era. It received its modern name from 
the Franks, who were originally a German tribe, inhabiting 
the districts on the Lower Rhine and the Weser, and who 
assumed the appellation of Franks, or Freemen, from their 
union to resist the dominion of the Romans. 

3. The Franks made an irruption into Gaul about the year 
420, under their leader Pharamond, who is said to have been 
succeeded by Clodion, Merovce'us, Childeric, and Clovis. The 
first race of the French kings is styled Merovingian, from 
Merovceus ; but the authentic history of the monarchy com- 
mences in 481, with his grandson Clovis, who is regarded as 
its real founder, and who achieved the conquest of France, 
by several victories over the Romans, the Alemanni, and the 
Visigoths, and by marrying Clotilda, a Christian princess, 
and daughter of the king of Burgundy. In consequence of 
this marriage, Clovis and his subjects embraced Christianity. 
He made Paris the seat of his government, and published 
the Salic laws, -excluding females from the throne. 

4. The Merovingian kings, who were generally weak sove- 
reigns, continued to possess the throne till 751. In 690, 
Pepin d'Heristel, mayor of the palace, the first officer under 



132 FRANCE. 

the crown, acquired the chief control, which he retained for 
many years, and left it to his son Charles Martel, who gained 
a great victory over the Saracens, between Tours and Poic- 
tiers, and who was succeeded in office by his son Pepin le 
Bref, or the Short, so called from his low stature, being only 
four and a half feet high. 

5. Pepin governed France while the weak Childeric III. 
was nominally king ; and being a man of talents and ambi- 
tion, he proposed the question to pope Zachary, whether he 
himself or Childeric was the best entitled to the crown. 
Zachary, from interested motives, decided in favor of Pepin, 
who was accordingly crowned at Soissons, by St. Boniface, 
bishop of Mentz, and became the founder of the second or 
Carlovingian race of French kings. Pepin recompensed the 
services done him by the pope, by turning his arms, during 
the pontificate of Stephen II, who succeeded Zachary, against 
the Lombards in Italy, and by granting the exarchate of Ra- 
venna and other territories to the see of Rome. In this man- 
ner the pope was raised to the rank of a temporal prince. 

6. Pepin was succeeded by his two sons, Charles and 
Carloman; but the latter dying not long after the death of 
his father, Charles possessed the undivided sovereignty. This 
distinguished monarch is known in history by the name of 
Charlemagne or Charles the Great. Notwithstanding the 
diminutive stature of his father, he is said to have been seven 
feet in height, of a robust constitution, and majestic appear- 
ance. 

7. Charlemagne was far the greatest monarch of his age, 
and distinguished both as a conqueror and a statesman. He 
was engaged in war during most of his reigis , had a long and 
bloody contest with the Saxons, put an end \~> the kingdom 
of the Lombards in Italy, by defeating Desiderius or Didier, 
their last sovereign, and made extensive conquests ; but he 
sustained a great defeat by the Spaniards, at Roncesvalles 
In 800 he was crowned Emperor of the West, by the pope 
His emp'te comprised France, the Netherlands, Germany, 
Switzerland, a great part of Italy, and part of Spain. He 
had no permanent capital, though Aix-la-Chapelk was, for a 
long time, his favorite residence. 

8. Charlemagne was a luminary in a dark age, and an 
eminent patron of learning. " He stands alone," says Hal- 
lam, *' Jike a beacon upon a waste, or a rock in the broad 
ocean." His court was frequented by Alcuin and other 
learned men ; and he endeavored to dispel the profound 



FRANCE. 133 

ignorance which generally prevailed. He manifested his zeal 
for religion by compelling those whom he subdued to receive 
Christian baptism, on the pain of being either made slaves or 
of suffering death. Succeeding generations, impressed with 
a grateful sense of the services which he rendered to the 
church, canonized his memory, and turned this bloody war- 
rior into an eminent saint. 

9. His private character, though stained with vices, exhib- 
ited many estimable qualities. On days of ceremony, he made 
a great display of luxury and splendor in his apparel ; but at 
other times he was plain in his dress, and frugal in regard to 
his table. The economy of his family was characteristic of 
an age of great simplicity. He superintended his farms, and 
trained his sons himself to manly exercises : the women be- 
longing to his court made use of the needle, and managed 
the distaff; and he took delight in appearing ornamented with 
the productions of his wife and daughters. 

10. Charlemagne was succeeded by his son Louis the Deb- 
onair, or the Mild, whose reign was inglorious and turbulent, 
and who divided his dominions among his sons. The quar- 
rels of the rival brothers, which commenced before the death 
of their father, involved their subjects in a sanguinary war, 
and the family contest was decided in a great battle on the 
plains of Fontenay , where no less than 100,000 men are said 
to have fallen, and most of the ancient nobility of France 
perished. A new division of the empire followed ; Charles 
the Bald receiving the western part of France, termed Aqui- 
taine and Neustria ; Lothaire, Italy and some of the southern 
provinces of France ; and Louis, Germany. During the reign 
of Charles, the Normans, from Scandinavia, commenced their 
invasions of France, and burnt Paris. 

11. Charles, after a weak and inglorious reign, was suc- 
ceeded by his son Louis the Stammerer, who, in order to in- 
sure tranquillity to his estates, made numerous grants of lands, 
titles, and offices to his nobles and bishops. After a short 
reign, he left his kingdom to his two sons, Louis III. and 
Carloman. After the death of these princes, the emperor 
Charles the Fat was elected to the vacant throne ; but he 
governed with so much imbecility, that he was soon de- 
throned, and the imperial dignity was transferred to Germany. 

12. The nobility gave the crown to Eudes, till Charlti the 
Simple should attain to the age of manhood ; and on the 
death of the former, the latter was raised to the throne ; but 
he was deposed by Robert, the brother of Eudes ; and Robert 

12 



134 FRANCE. 

was succeeded by his son-in-law Rodolph. During the reign 
of Charles the Simple, the Normans, under Rollo, invaded 
and took Neustria, and established themselves in the country, 
which from them was named Normandy. 

13. During the succeeding reigns of Louis IV. and Lo- 
thaii-e, Hugh the Great, the most powerful nobleman in 
France, obtained the chief direction of the government ; and 
in the reign of Louis V., he was succeeded in his authority 
by his son, Hugh Capet, who, on the death of Louis, placed 
himself upon the throne, and founded the third or Capetian 
race of French kings. 



SECTION II. 

Capetian Kings, from Hugh Capet to Philip VI. of Valois. 
—From A. D. 987 to 1328. 

1. Hugh Capet, an able and politic sovereign, added con- 
siderable territories to the kingdom, and made Paris his capi- 
tal. He was succeeded by his son Robert, who was com- 
manded by the pope to divorce his queen Bertha, because 
she was his cousin in the fourth degree. But he refused to 
comply, and was excommunicated. He was, in consequence, 
reduced to the most abject condition, being abandoned by all 
his courtiers, as a person infected with the plague ; and was 
finally compelled to submit. 

2. The quiet of his son and successor Henry I. was dis- 
turbed by the hostile designs of his unnatural mother, Con- 
stantia. During his reign a law was enacted, called the truce 
of God, prohibiting private combats between Thursday and 
Sunday. This was all that the ecclesiastical and civil power 
united, could, in this age, do to check the general rage for 
duelling. 

3. The reign of JPhilip I., the successor of Henry, was sig- 
nalized by the first crusade, preached by Peter the Hermit; 
and by the invasion of France by William the Conqueror, of 
England. From this event may be dated the long-continued 
rivalship and hostility between the French and English mon- 
archies, which form a leading feature in their history during 
several centuries. 

4. Louis VI, surnamed the Fat, the son of Philip, was an 
able and accomplished sovereign, and had a prosperous and 
useful reign. On his death-bed he addressed his son, who 



FRANCE. 135 

succeeded him, in the following words : " Remember that 
royalty is nothing more than a public charge, of which you 
must render a very strict account to him who makes kings, 
and who will judge them." 

5. Louis VII., surnamed the Young, having been educa- 
ted in an abbey, was zealous for the religion of the age. The 
abbeys, at this period, produced some eminent men, among 
whom were Suger, abbot of St. Denis, a great politician ; St. 
Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, famous for his eloquence and 
z/;al ; and Abelard, celebrated for his genius, and his learn- 
ing in scholastic theology, and not less so for his unfortunate 
love for Louisa or Heloise. 

6. A civil war was excited on account of the refusal of 
Louis to assent to the choice of an archbishop, who was sup- 
ported by the pope. The king entered the town of Vitry at 
the head of a large army, and caused the parochial church, in 
which the rebellious inhabitants had taken refuge, to be set on 

- - - 

fire, and 1,300 persons perished in the flames. The remorse 
which Louis felt for this act of cruelty and sacrilege, gave rise 
to the second crusade, which was preached by St. Bernard. 

7. Louis had married Eleanor, heiress of the great duchy 
of Guienne, whom he divorced for her levities and vices ; 
and in six weeks, she married Henry Plantagenet, earl of 
Anjou, who became, the next year, Henry II. of England, 
and who, by this marriage, acquired a great addition to his 
possessions in France. 

8. Philip II., surnamed Augustus, on account of his ex- 
ploits, surpassed, in systematic ambition and military enter- 
prise, all the sovereigns who had reigned in France since the 
time of Charlemagne. He signalized the commencement of 
his reign by a tyrannical act, in confiscating the property of 
the Jews in France, and banishing them from his dominions ; 
he soon after joined Richard I. of England in the third 
crusade. 

9. John, who succeeded Richard in the throne of England, 
was suspected of having murdered his nephew Arthur ; and 
for this Philip summoned him, as his vassal, to be tried by a 
court of his peers ; but John, refusing to obey the summons, 
was declared guilty of felony, and his possessions were con 
fiscated. Philip invaded Normandy with his troops, and in a 
short time the king of England lost all his territories in France, 
with the exception of Guienne. 

10. Philip, who left his kingdom about twice as large as 
he found it, was succeeded by his son Louis VIII., who was 



136 FRANCE. 

surnamed the Lion, on account of his valor, and whose shoif, 
reign was chiefly distinguished by a barbarous crusade against 
the Albigenses. 

11. Louis IX., commonly called Saint Louis, succeeded 
to the throne at the age of 12 years, and during his minority, 
his mother, Blanche of Castile, filled the office of regent with 
great firmness and courage. St. Louis was distinguished for 
his uprightness, benevolence, and piety, and with regard to 
the purity of intention, has, perhaps, scarcely been excel- 
led by any sovereign that ever sat on a throne ; and his long 
reign was, in many respects, highly beneficial to his country. 
His principal weakness was superstition, which almost effaced 
the good effects of his virtues, and which prompted him to 
engage in two disastrous crusades, in the second of which he 
died near Tunis. 

12. St. Louis was succeeded by his son Philip III, sur- 
named the Hardy or Bold, because, when a prisoner with 
his father in Africa, he had the boldness to punish a soldier 
who treated him with insolence ; or, as others say, because 
he extricated the remains of the army in Africa, and brought 
the crusade, which was undertaken by his father, to a favora- 
ble issue. During this reign, an insurrection took place in 
Sicily, which was occasioned by the tyranny of Charles of 
Anjou, uncle of Philip, who had recently become king of that 
island ; and 8, or 10,000 Frenchmen were massacred, on the 
evening of Easter-dav, a transaction called the massacre of the 
Sicilian Vespers. 

13. Philip IV., surnamed the Fair, from the beauty of his 
countenance and the elegance of his person, was distinguish- 
ed for his ambition, dissimulation, perfidy, and cruelty, and 
was engaged in continual contests. By endeavoring to raise 
money from the clergy, as well as from his other subjects, he 
was involved in a quarrel wit!} the ambitious and haughty 
pope Boniface VIII, who prohibited the clergy from paying 
the assessment, laid France under an interdict, and issued a 
bull, declaring "that the Vicar of Christ is vested with full 
authority over the kings and kingdoms on the earth." 

14. The arrogant pontiff died during the contest, and Philip 
managed to get Clement V., a Frenchman devoted to his in- 
terests, elected his successor, and transferred the seat of the 
papacy from Rome to Avignon, where it continued 70 years. 
This removal greatly exasperated the Italians, who, in conse- 
quence, became hostile to the pope, and styled his residence 
at Avignon, " The Babylonish captivity of the Holy See."-— 



FRANCE. 137 

The fraternity of Knights Templars, a religious and military 
order of great wealth, was abolished by Philip, and their prop- 
erty confiscated ; but a measure more creditable to him was 
his instituting parliaments. 

15. Philip was succeeded by his son Louis X., surnamed 
Hutin, that is, the Stubborn, or Wrangler, whose short reign 
was signalized by the execution of his prime minister Marig- 
ni for pretended crimes, but, in reality, for his wealth. Philip 
V., the Long, on the death of John I, the infant son of Philip 
IV., succeeded to the throne. His reign is noted chiefly for 
a barbarous massacre and banishment of the Jews, who were 
accused of having poisoned the wells and fountains of water. 
His successor, Charles IV. the Pair, was the last of three 
brothers, whose reigns were all short, and who were always 
necessitous in respect to their finances, and little scrupulous 
with regard to their methods of improving them. 



SECTION III. 

Branch of Valois : — Philip VI ; John II. ; Charles V. ; 
Charles VI; Charles VII. ; Louis XI. ; Charles VIII— 
From A. D. 1328 to 1498. 

1. Philip the Fair left three sons, Louis Hutin, Philip the 
Long, and Charles the Fair, who were all successively kings 
of France, but who all died without leaving any male heirs , 
and one daughter, Isabella, queen of England, and mother of 
Edward III. On the death of Charles the Fair, the male 
succession to the throne devolved on Philip VI. of Valois, 
Charles's cousin-german ; and his title was universally ac- 
knowledged and supported by the French nation. 

2. But Edward III. of England was a nearer relative on 
the female side, and he asserted his claim in right of his 
mother. This claim gave rise to those contests for the French 
crown by the kings of England, which are so famous in the 
history of both countries. Edward invaded France with an 
army of 30,000 men, in order to enforce his claim, gained 
the famous battle of Cressy, and besieged and took Calais. — 
In the midst of these misfortunes, Philip had the satisfaction 
of seeing Dauphiny annexed to the crown of France, by Hu- 
bert, the last count, on condition that the king's eldest son 
should bear the title of Dauphin. 

12* 



138 FRANCE. 

3. Philip was succeeded by his son John II, surnamed tin 
Good, who was still more unfortunate than his father, being 
utterly defeated by the English under the Black Prince, near 
Poictiers, and carried a prisoner to London, where he died. 

4. During the captivity of John, the kingdom was thrown 
into the greatest disorder and confusion ; but soon after his 
son Charles V., surnamed the Wise, ascended the throne, the 
condition of the country began to improve. This distinguish- 
ed sovereign resolved to make France a match for England ; 
and, in order to effect this object, he deemed it necessary to 
restore tranquillity to the people, and inspire them with con- 
fidence in the government. He raised to the office of consta- 
ble of France the celebrated Du Guesclin, who was one of 
the greatest generals of the age, though he could neither read 
nor write. The French, under his command, drove into Spain 
the banditti that had ravaged the country, routed Charles, king 
of Navarre, and expelled the English from all their possessions 
in France, except Bourdeaux, Bayonne, and Calais. 

5. Charles was one of the best sovereigns that have sat on 
the throne of France ; a sagacious statesman, a beneficent 
lawgiver, a patron of literature, and an excellent man in his 
private character. His father left him a library of only 20 
volumes ; to which he added 900, which rendered it one of 
the greatest libraries then in the world, and was an immense 
number for that period, when printing was not yet invented. 
Charles may be regarded as the founder of the magnificent 
royal library of which Paris is now proud. 

6. This eminent sovereign was succeeded by his son Charles 
VI, styled the JYett-hdoved, a weak prince, subject to insanity, 
which, at last, reduced him almost to an idiot. His life and 
his reign were alike miserable, and all the fruits of the wis- 
dom of his father's government were soon lost. His queen, 
Isabella of Bavaria, was of most infamous character, and the 
court was notorious for profligacy. The kingdom was gov- 
erned by a succession of regents, whose misconduct occa- 
sioned seditions and rebellions. 

7. During this calamitous state of France, Henri/ V. of 
England invaded the country, gained the memorable victory 
of Agincourt, and after obtaining other advantages, he con- 
cluded the treaty of Troyes, by which his succession to the 
throne, on the death of Charles, was acknowledged. Henry 
and Charles both died soon after this transaction. 

8. Charles VII, afterwards surnamed the Victorious, son of 
Charles VI., asserted his right to the crown ; and the infant 



FRANCE. 139 

Henry VI. of England was also proclaimed king of France 
under the regency of his uncle the duke of Bedford. The 
English undertook the siege of Orleans, a place of the utmost 
importance, and pushed their designs so successfully, that the 
affairs of Charles seemed almost desperate, when they were 
suddenly restored by one of the most marvellous transactions 
recorded in history. 

9. An obscure country girl, 27 years of age, who had 
lived in the humble station of a servant at an inn, overthrew 
the power of England. This was that wonderful heroine, 
Joan of Arc, otherwise called tlie Maid of Orleans, who ap- 
peared at this juncture, pretending to be divinely commission- 
ed to deliver her oppressed country, and promising to raise 
the siege of Orleans, and to conduct the king to Rheims to 
be crowned. 

10. Her mission was pronounced by an assembly of divines, 
to be supernatural ; and, at her own request, she was armed 
cap-a-pie, dressed like a man, mounted on horseback, enter- 
ed Orleans at the head of the French troops, and actually 
compelled the English to raise the siege. Charles, in obedi- 
ence to her exhortations, proceeded to Rheims, which was 
then in possession of the English, entered ii without difficulty, 
and was there crowned. Joan then declared that her mission 
was ended, and requested leave to retire ; but her presence 
was thought still necessary, and being detained, she after- 
wards fell into the hands of the English, who condemned her 
for witchcraft, and caused her to be burnt alive at Rouen. 

11. The French gained further victories, and the English 
were finally expelled from all their possessions in the country, 
except Calais. Charles now directed his attention to the im- 
provement of the internal condition of his kingdom, and was 
a useful and popular sovereign. The latter part of his life 
was imbittered by the undutiful and rebellious conduct of 
his son, the dauphin, by whom he was in such fear of being 
po'soned, that he is said to have died through want of suste- 
nance. 

12. Louis XL, who was an odious compound of dissimu- 
lation, profligacy, cruelty, and superstition, is sometimes styled 
the Tiberius of France ; yet he obtained from the pope the 
title of Most Christian, a title still annexed to the name of the 
French kings. He possessed, however, considerable talents, 
great application to business, and affability to his inferiors ; 
and he was the author of many wise laws and excellent regu- 



140 FRANCE. 

lations for the encouragement of commerce, and for promot- 
ing the administration of justice. 

13. It was his policy to humble the nobles, who formed 
a confederacy against him, and engaged in a contest to pre- 
serve their authority, entitled " the war of the public good." 
The barbarity of the public executions during his reign, is 
almost incredible : his own life was rendered miserable, es- 
pecially towards its close, by the knowledge of his being gen- 
erally hated, and by the torments and terrors of a guilty con- 
science. 

14. Charles VIII. , the son of Louis, succeeded to the 
throne, at the age of 13 years. He was mild in his dispo- 
sition, and courteous in his manners, and received the sur- 
name of the Affable or Civil. His father had acquired a 
claim to the kingdom of Naples ; and on coming of age, he 
engaged in an expedition for the conquest of that country, 
which was easily accomplished ; but the possession of it was 
soon lost 



SECTION IV. 

Louis XII. ; Francis I. ; Henry II ; Francis II ; Charles 
IX. ; Henry III— From A. D. 1498 to 1589. 

1. Charles VIII., who was the last of the direct line of the 
house of Valois, was succeeded by Louis XII, Duke of Or- 
leans, great-grandson of Charles V. He was a beneficent 
and popular sovereign, though injudicious and unfortunate in 
his enterprises. Being frugal in his policy, he diminished 
the taxes and burdens of his subjects ; and gained the title 
of " the Father of his People." He retained the ministers 
of the late king in office, even those who had treated him ill 
before he came to. the throne. " It is unworthy of the king 
of France," said he, " to punish the injuries done to the duke 
of Orleans." 

2. Near the commencement of his reign, he reduced 
Milan and Genoa, and afterwards prosecuted his claim to 
Naples ; but though, by the aid of his generals, the celebrated 
Chevalier Bayard and Gaston de Foix, he obtained some ad- 
vantages, he was ultimately unsuccessful, and became the 
dupe of his allies, Ferdinand of Spain, and the infamous 
pope Alexander VI ; and the former, by treachery, got pos- 
session of the whole of Naples. 



FRANCE. 141 

3. At this period, the republic of Venice, on account of 
its wealth, acquired by commerce, excited the envy and jeal- 
ousy of its neighbors, particularly of the politic and ambitious 
pope Julius II, who projected against it the famous League 
of Cambray, which was composed of the pope, the emperor 
of Germany, and the kings of France and Spain. Louis 
entered with spirit into the war against Venice, and gained 
the famous victory of Agnadello. But the confederates after- 
wards quarrelled with each other, and a new league was form- 
ed against France. 

4. The French, under the command of Gaston de Foix f 
gained a victory over the new confederates at Ravenna, but 
it cost them the life of their commander. The death of this 
celebrated hero was fatal to Louis, for he soon afterwards 
lost all the places which he possessed in Italy, and was com- 
pelled to evacuate the country. In the midst of his prepara- 
tions to recover these losses, Louis died suddenly, and the 
exclamation of " The good king is dead," was heard on 
every side. 

5. Francis I, Duke of Angouleme, and nephew of Louis 
XII., succeeded to the throne at the age of 21 years. He 
was of a romantic turn, fond of war, and eager for glory ; 
he departed from the frugal maxims of his predecessor, 
and soon distinguished himself by the conquest of the Mil- 
anese. 

6. In 1519, on the death of Maximilian, emperor of 
Germany, Francis and Charles V. (who was then king of 
Spain) became rival candidates for the imperial crown, 
Francis, speaking with Charles respecting the object of 
their competition, said, with his natural vivacity and frank- 
ness ; " We are suitors to the same mistress ; the more 
fortunate will win her, but the other must remain content- 
ed." 

7. Charles was the successful candidate ; and Francis, 
whose heart was too much set upon the prize to lose it with 
quiet feelings, retired disappointed, and thirsting for re- 
venge. The two rivals were now declared enemies, and their 
mutual claims on each other's dominions were the subject 
of perpetual hostility, during nearly the whole of their long 
reigns. 

8. The reign of Charles V. forms a distinguished period 
in history, — memorable not only for the wars and contests 
arr-ong *,he states of Europe ; but still more so for the estab- 



142 FRANCE. 

lishment of the Reformation, the advancement of literature, 
the extension of commerce, and the impulse given to the prog- 
ress of society. Charles was the greatest sovereign of the 
age, and superior to his rival Francis both in policy and 
power. Other distinguished sovereigns of the same age, 
were Henry VIII. of England, who was courted by both of 
the rival monarchs, and, in some degree, involved in their 
wars ; Soli/man the Magnificent, sultan of Turkey, a formida- 
ble enemy of Charles ; Gustavus Vasa of Sweden ; and Pope 
Leo X. 

9. In the contest between the two rivals, the first hostile 
attack was made by Francis on the kingdom of Navarre, 
which was won and lost in the space of a few months. The 
emperor attacked Picardy, and his troops, at the same time, 
drove the French out of the Milanese. Francis quarrelled 
with his best general, the constable of Bourbon, who, in re- 
venge, deserted to the emperor, and was by him invested 
with the chief command of his armies. The French king 
marched into Italy with great success, and laid siege to Pa- 
via ; but was here defeated by Bourbon, and taken prisoner. 

10. Francis was detained some time at Madrid by Charles, 
who compelled him to comply with disadvantageous terms of 
peace. After being set at liberty, and having passed the 
boundaries between Spain and France, he mounted his horse, 
and waving his hand over his head, exultingly exclaimed, 
several times, " I am yet a king." Charles had not treated 
him with generosity, having extorted from him more promises 
than a king, restored to freedom, would be likely to perform, 
and more than his subjects would assent to. The violations 
of this treaty occasioned, between the two sovereigns, insult- 
ing challenges and new wars. 

11. After war had been prosecuted with various success, a 
truce was at length agreed upon, and a circumstance took 
place, which brought the rival monarchs, who had been en- 
gaged 20 years in hostilities with each other, to a personal 
interview at Aigues Mortes, in the south of France. On 
meeting, they vied with each other in expressions of respect 
and friendship. The next year, Charles obtained permission 
of Francis to pass through France on his way to the Nether- 
lands, and was entertained, during a stay of six days in Paris, 
with great magnificence. 

12. Charles having afterwards refused to give up Milan to 
France, as he had promised, the war was again renewed with 
redoubled animosity ; but its final issue, as had usually been 



FRANCE. 143 

the case, was unfavorable to the designs of the king of France, 
who died immediately after the restoration of peace. 

13. Though Francis was engaged in war during the whole 
of his reign, and was unsuccessful in his projects, yet he left 
his kingdom in a flourishing condition. He was a patron of 
literature and the arts, which made great progress in France 
during his reign ; and at this period, the French court ac- 
quired much of that external polish and refinement, for which 
it has been since distinguished. 

14. Francis possessed, in a high degree, those qualities 
which captivate the multitude ; impetuous courage, great de- 
cision, and activity of mind, a frank disposition, and a gener- 
ous heart : and there was a polish about his manners, an 
amiableness about his more common actions and his mode of 
performing them, and a delicacy and strictness of honbr about 
his whole conduct, which characterize a finished gentleman. 
Yet he was far from being actuated by a sense of justice and 
good faith in his public character ; nor were his private morals 
free from reproach. He formed his plans with too little de- 
liberation, and was wanting in perseverance. It was his 
misfortune to contend with a rival, who was more than a 
match for him in policy and resources. 

15. Henry II, the son and successor of Francis, was brave, 
affable, and polite, in some respects resembling his father, yet 
possessing far less talent, and easily governed by favorites. 
His reign, which was 13 years in duration, was spent in war, 
chiefly with Charles V., and his son Philip II. of Spain. 
Charles sustained a great loss at the siege of Metz ; but Philip 
obtained over Henry the famous victory of St. Quentin, in 
commemoration of which he built the palace of the Escurial. 

16. This war, the success of which had not been much to 
the satisfaction of either party, was terminated by the treaty 
of Chateau Cambrcsis. The reign of Henry was signalized 
by the recovery of Calais from the English, and by the in- 
crease of those persecutions of the Calvinists or Protestants, 
often also called Huguenots, which had been begun in the 
reign of his father, and which gave rise to the civil wars which 
distracted France during the three succeeding reigns. 

17. The successor of Henry II. was his son Francis II, 
the first husband of Mary, afterwards queen of Scots, who 
died after a reign of one year, and was succeeded by his broth- 
er Charles IX., then a boy only ten years old, who had for 



144 FRANCE. 

his guardian his mother, Catharine de Medicis, an ambitious 
and unprincipled woman. 

18. At this time, the Protestant religion had spread exten- 
sively in Fiance, and was professed by some men of great 
influence at court, among whom were the Prince of Conde 
and Admiral Coligni. 

19. At the head of the Catholics was the ambitious family 
of the Guises, consisting of five brothers, the most prominent 
of whom were the Duke of Guise and the Cardinal of Lor- 
raine, who were leading men in the government. To the 
intolerance and cruelty of this family, the Protestants attribu- 
ted all their calamities ; and the conspiracy of Amboise was 
formed for the destruction of the Catholic leaders. It was, 
however, discovered, and about ,1,200 conspirators were mas- 
sacred and executed. 

20. After the famous conference held at Poissy, for dis- 
cussing the points in dispute between the Catholics and Prot- 
estants, an edict was published, granting liberty to the latter 
to exercise their worship without the walls of towns. But 
this edict being soon violated, both parties flew to arms, and 
commenced the sanguinary civil war, which, for a long time, 
harassed the kingdom. 

21. The Catholics, under the command of Guise and Mont- 
morency, defeated the Protestants, commanded by Conde and 
Coligni, in several engagements ; but the latter were still 
powerful, and obtained conditions of peace, which granted 
them toleration. 

22. The king and his court now had recourse to stratagem 
and treachery. The Protestants were treated with the greatest 
marks of favor, and on the occasion of the marriage of the 
king of Navarre with the sister of Charles, they were allured 
to court : every thing being arranged, on St. Bartholomew'' s 
day, a horrid massacre was commenced in Paris and through- 
out France, when, according to Sully, as many as 70,000 
were murdered, most of them in their beds ; and among the 
sufferers was the venerable Coligni. Of this most atrocious 
massacre, the French historian Thuanus observes, that " no 
example of equal barbarity is to be found in all antiquity, or 
in the annals of the world." 

23. Charles, in giving directions for the massacre of his 
Protestant subjects, added, " Take care that none escape to 
reproach me." When the news of this horrible transaction 
was heard at Rome, solemn thanks were given for " the tri- 



FRANCE. 145 

amph of the church militant !" Charles, who was a monster 
of cruelty, profligacy, and dissimulation, died soon after this 
massacre, for which he suffered the bitterest remorse. Not- 
withstanding the distractions of this unhappy reign, many 
wise laws were enacted through the influence of the celebra- 
ted chancellor De V Hospital. 

24. Charles was succeeded by his brother Henry III., a 
weak, fickle, and vicious monarch. The massacre of St. 
Bartholomew served rather to strengthen than weaken the 
Protestants, who were now a powerful party, and had at their 
head the Prince of Conde and the King of Navarre. Henry 
found it expedient to grant them some privileges : this meas- 
ure incensed the Catholics, who, with the Duke of Guise at 
their head, formed the celebrated League for the purpose of 
extirpating the Calvinists : it had also another and more secret 
object, that of usurping all the powers of government. 

25. The king was persuaded to unite himself with this 
league, and took the field against the Protestants. But he 
soon found himself deprived of a great part of his authority 
by the duke of Guise ; and after repeated contests, Henry 
caused the duke, and his brother the cardinal of Lorraine, to 
be put to death by the hand of assassins. This act excited 
an insurrection throughout France, and subjected the king to 
the abhorrence of his subjects ; and he was soon after assassi- 
nated himself by James Clement, a Dominican friar. 



SECTION V. 

House of Bourbon : — Henry IV. ; Louis XIII. ; Louis 
XIV.— From A. D. 1589 to 1715. 

1. As Henry III. died without children, and the house of 
Valois was extinct, the throne passed to the house of Bour- 
bon, in the person of Henry III., king of Navarre, who now 
became Henry IV. of France, afterwards surnamed the Great. 
His mother had avowed herself the protector of the Reformed 
religion, in which he had been educated. He was now in his 
36th year ; an able general, possessed of distinguished talents 
and popular qualities, for the exercise of all which he soon 
found ample occasion, as his being a Protestant prejudiced 
the greater part of his people against him. 
13 



146 FRANCE. 

2. The army of the League was now commanded by the 
Duke of Mayenne, brother of the late duke of Guise, who 
proclaimed his uncle, the Cardinal of Bourbon, king, by the 
title of Charles X. Henry defeated this army in the famous 
battle of Ivry. 

3. Meeting afterwards with various obstacles, he was in- 
duced, by views of policy, in order to conciliate the majority 
of his subjects, to renounce Protestantism, and declare him- 
self a Catholic. He was then crowned at Chartres, and ob- 
tained absolution from the pope. To his old friends, the Cal- 
vinists, who had been his defenders, and by whose aid he 
ascended the throne, he granted the celebrated Edict of 
Nantes, by which he confirmed all their rights and privileges, 
giving them free admission to all offices of honor and profit. 

4. After Henry was quietly seated on the throne, he turned 
his attention to the improvement of the internal condition of 
his kingdom ; encouraging agriculture and commerce, caus- 
ing mulberry-trees to be planted, and silk-worms to be reared ; 
and in all his patriotic designs, he found an able assistant in 
his great minister the Duke of Sully, in whom he possessed 
what kings can rarely boast of — a true friend. The civil 
war, of nearly thirty years' duration, had produced the most 
calamitous effects : the crown was loaded with debt ; the 
country uncultivated ; the people poor and miserable : but by 
means of the wise and prudent measures which were adopted, 
the face of things was soon happily changed ; and, during this 
reign, all the state debts were discharged. 

5. Henry, with the aid of Sully, formed a romantic scheme, 
styled the grand, design, for dividing Europe into 15 states, so 
arranged as to avoid the grounds of war, and secure perpetual 
peace. With regard to his real motive, there have been differ- 
ent opinions ; but the object, whatever it might be, was to be 
obtained by force of arms. Having made great preparations 
for war, just before he was to set out to put himself at the 
head of his army, he was assassinated by Ravaillac, a big- 
oted Catholic, in the 21st year of his reign, and the 57th of 
his age. 

6. Henry was the most popular sovereign that ever sat on 
the throne of France. His person and manners were pre- 
possessing, at once inspiring affection and commanding re- 
spect : his talents were great, both as a general and a states- 
man ; but his master virtue was his love for his people. His 
soldiers ard his subjects regarded him with the affection of 
children. When asked what the revenue of France amounted 



FRANCE. 147 

to, he replied, " To what I please ; for having the hearts of 
my people, they will give me whatever I ask : if God sees 
proper to spare my life, I will take care that France shall be 
in such a condition, that every peasant in it shall be able to 
have a fowl in his pot." 

7. Notwithstanding his many noble qualities as a sovereign 
and a man, yet, as a husband, he is little to be commended ; 
his dissoluteness rendered his domestic life unhappy, and the 
manners of his court were rendered profligate by the example 
of his libertine conduct. No less than 4,000 French gentle- 
men are said to have been killed in duels, chiefly arising out 
of amorous quarrels, during the first 18 years of his reign. 

8. Henry was succeeded by his son Louis XIII., then a 
boy in his 9th year. Mary de Medicis, the mother of the 
young king, who was appointed regent, disgusted the nobility 
by her partiality for Italian favorites, and the kingdom soon 
relapsed into the most fatal disorders. But the abilities of 
Cardinal Richelieu, who, after the king became of age, was 
made prime minister, soon effected a great change. It was 
his policy to promote rather the aggrandizement of the king- 
dom, than the true interests and happiness of the people. 
His three leading objects were, to subdue the turbulent spirit 
of the French nobiLty, to humble the power of the Protestants, 
and to curb the encroachments of the house of Austria. 

9. The Protestants, alienated by persecution, attempted to 
throw off their allegiance, and establish an independent state, 
of which Rochelle was to be the capital. Richelieu laid siege 
to this city, which, after maintaining a most obstinate resist- 
ance for a year, during which 15,000 persons perished, was 
forced to surrender. By this event, the civil war was ended, 
and the Protestant power in France finally crushed. 

10. The cardinal entered deeply into foreign politics, in- 
fluenced all the courts of Europe, and was continually enga- 
ged in vast projects for humbling his enemies, and extending 
his influence abroad, or in checking the designs which were 
Sbrmed against his power and his life at home. A rebellion 
was excited by the Duke of Orleans, the king's brother, sup- 
ported by the Duke of Montmorency ; but their army was 
defeated, and Montmorency executed for treason. Amidst 
all this turbulence and intrigue, the haughty and ambitious 
cardinal extended the glory of the French name to distant 
regions, commanded the respect of all the European powers, 
patronized literature and science, and instituted the French 
Academy. 



148 FRANCE. . 

11. Louis was so completely under the influence of Riche- 
lieu, that his character is little seen. He acquired the epithet 
of Just; but if he were entitled to it, the injustice and cruelty 
of some of the public measures of his reign, must be imputed 
entirely to his minister. 

12. Louis XIV. (sometimes surnamed the Great) succeed- 
ed to the throne in the 5th year of his age, under the regency 
of his mother, Anne of Austria, who made choice of Cardinal 
Mazarin for her minister. Mazarin was an artful Italian, 
whose excessive avarice rendered him odious to the people ; 
but one of his greatest faults was his neglect of the education 
of the young king, who was instructed only in dancing, fen- 
cing, and other superficial accomplishments. The adminis- 
tration of Mazarin was signalized by the defeat of the Span- 
iards, and by intestine commotions, particularly a civil war, 
called the Fronde, fomented by Cardinal de Ketz, and sup- 
ported by the aristocracy. 

13. On the death of Mazarin, Louis, being now 22 years 
of age, took upon himself the entire command and direction 
of the affairs of government, and entered on a vigorous and 
splendid career. The love of glory was his ruling passion, 
and this he pursued not only by the terror of his arms and 
the splendor of his conquests, but also by his patronage of 
literature, science, and the arts ; by his able administration 
of internal affairs ; and by the extension and improvement 
of all kinds of public works. The capital was embellished, 
the splendid palace of Versailles built, commerce and manu- 
factures encouraged, the canal of Languedoc, and other useful 
works, constructed. 

14. The finances were admirably regulated by Colbert, one 
of the ablest statesmen of modern times : in the former part 
of his reign, his armies were commanded by Conde and Tu- 
renne, two of the greatest generals of the age ; and the genius 
of the famous Vauban was employed in fortifying his towns. 

15. For a long time, he was every where successful : he 
conquered Franche Compte, and annexed it to France ; made 
great conquests in the Netherlands ; overran Alsace ; and 
twice laid waste the Palatinate with fire and sword. Such 
was the barbarous devastation, that, in the first instance, from 
the top of the castle of Manheim, 27 cities and towns of the 
Palatinate were seen, at the same time, in flames ; and in the 
second instance, more than 40 towns, and a vast number of 
villages, were burnt, and the inhabitants reduced to the great- 
est extremities by hunger and cold. 



FRANCE. 149 

16. In 1675, Turenne was killed by a cannon ball ; Condi 
soon after retired ; and Colbert died. No men of equal talents 
arose to supply their places. The conquests of Louis had 
been made at such an enormous expense, that his dominions 
were, in a measure, exhausted, and his means of defence 
weakened. He had, by his unbounded ambition, by the vio- 
lence and injustice of his projects, and the alarming increase 
of bis power, gradually raised up, among the states of Europe, 
a formidable opposition to his authority, which gave rise to 
long and bloody wars. 

17. By the League of Augsburg, which was organized in 
1686, Holland, Spain, Sweden, the emperor and several of 
the princes of Germany, were united against him. In 1701, 
the alliance against France by England, Germany, and Hol- 
land, was formed. A series of reverses marked the latter part 
of his long reign. His armies had now to contend against 
the genius of the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, 
who gained over them the celebrated battles of Blenheim, 
Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet ; and at the peace of 
Utrecht, he lost nearly all that he had gained. 

18. One of the most unjust as well as impolitic measures 
of Louis, was the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, granted 
by Henry IV., for the toleration of the Protestants. By this 
barbarous act, all the Reformed churches were destroyed, 
their ministers banished, and every individual was outlawed, 
or compelled to renounce his religion. They were hunted 
like wild beasts, and great numbers were put to death. By 
this measure, the kingdom lost from 500,000 to 800,000 of 
her most useful and industrious citizens, who were driven 
into exile, and carried the arts and manufactures of France, 
in which the Protestants greatly excelled, to other countries. 

19. Louis died in the 73d year of his reign, and the 78th 
of his age. His reign was the longest and most brilliant in 
the history of France, but not the happiest for his country ; 
and his government was more despotic than that of his pre- 
decessors. " The greater part of his reign," says Anquetil, 
11 may be considered as a spectacle with grand machinery, 
calculated to excite astonishment. Towards the end, we be- 
hold nothing but the wrecks of that theatrical majesty, and 
the illusion vanishes." 

20. Louis was one of the handsomest men in his kingdom, 
and excelled in all the polite accomplishments. In his ap- 
pearance and manners there was an extraordinary degree of 
dignity and majesty, which were softened and tempered by 

13* 



150 FRANCE. 

affability and politeness ; so that, if he was not the greatest 
king, he was at least, as Bolingbroke expresses it, " the best 
actor of majesty that ever filled a throne." 

21. He possessed great vigor of mind, and good talents, 
which were, however, but little improved by education. His 
morals were dissolute, and his ambition and love of glory 
were insatiable, and led him to violate the duties of justice 
and humanity, and to sacrifice the real interests of his people. 
He patronized every species of merit, and his reign, which is 
regarded as the Augustan Age of French literature, was less 
illustrious for military achievements, than for the splendor of 
the arts and sciences. 



SECTION VI. 

Louis XV. ; Louis XVI. : — The Revolution. — From A. D. 

1715 to 1793. 

1. Louis XV., great-grandson of the late king, succeeded 
to the throne in his 6th year ; and the Duke of Orleans was 
appointed regent. This regency is remarkable chiefly for 
the famous Mississippi scheme of Law, who formed a project 
to pay off the national debt, by the introduction of a paper 
currency ; — a scheme which was ruinous to the fortunes of 
thousands. 

2. Louis, soon after he came of age, chose for his minister 
the mild and amiable Cardinal Fleury, who was then 73 
years of age, and retained his vigor till near 90. By his pa- 
cific counsels, the tranquillity of France, and even of the rest 
of Europe, was continued, with little interruption, for nearly 
20 years. 

3. After the death of Fleury, France was involved in the 
war of the Austrian Succession, which was occasioned by the 
death of the emperor Charles VI. There were two claimants 
to the imperial throne, Maria Theresa, the late emperor's 
eldest daughter, who was married to Francis of Lorraine, 
grand duke of Tuscany ; and Charles, the elector of Bavaria. 
The former was supported by England ; the latter by France 
and Prussia. In this war, the French were defeated by the 
allies, under George II. of England, zXDettingen; but under 
marshal Saxe, they gained the battle of Fontenoy. Hostilities 
were terminated by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by whicli 
the claim of Maria Theresa was acknowledged. 



FRANCE. 151 

4. In 1755, a war broke out between France and England 
respecting their American possessions, which was terminated 
by the peace of Paris, in 1763, when Canada and the terri- 
tories in North America, were ceded by France to Great 
Britain. The remainder of this reign was chiefly occupied 
with the conquest of Corsica, and contests between the king 
and his parliaments. 

5. Louis died after a reign of 59 years, and a life of 65. 
He possessed nothing, as a king or a man, that entitled him 
to the gratitude or affection of his people. In the early part 
of his reign, his subjects conferred upon him the title of 
Well-beloved ; but a long course of rapacity, profusion, and 
tyranny, as a monarch, and of the most profligate debauche- 
ries in private life, induced them to retract the appellation. 
His reign resembled that of Charles II of England, in its 
pernicious influence on the interests of religion, morality, and 
liberty. His own odious character ; his attempts to crush 
the spirit of freedom ; the prodigality of his government ; the 
extreme profligacy of his court, — all conspired to loosen the 
bonds between the sovereign and his subjects ; and the gen- 
eral uneasiness, and the murmurs of the people, indicated 
approaching storms. 

6. Louis XVI. succeeded his grandfather at the age of 
20 years. He was a man of correct morals, upright inten- 
tions ; desirous of correcting abuses ; but was wanting in 
decision of character. His post was one beset with great 
difficulty and danger from various quarters. It was difficult 
either to do good, or to continue evil ; as the privileged elates 
were as little disposed to submit to reforms, as the people to 
abuses. The finances, by reason of the long course of prodi- 
gality, were in the most embarrassed condition ; and the peo- 
ple, irritated by the tyrannical conduct of the late sovereign, 
were now more than ever alive to their rights. 

7. One of the first measures of the new king was, to re- 
move from office those who, by their mi conduct, had become 
unpopular, and had contributed to the distresses of the king- 
dom, and to replace them by men of talents and integrity. 
Turgot was placed at the head of the finances, and Hales- 
heroes was made minister of the interior. These enlightened 
statesmen attempted useful reforms, which offended the cour- 
tiers and privileged orders ; and after a short ministry, they 
retired from office. 

8. The celebrated Necker, a Protestant of Geneva, and a 
banker, succeeded Turgot, and pursued the system of econo- 



I5& FRANCE. 

my and reform ; but becoming unpopular with the courtiers, 
lie was displaced. The important office of the general con- 
trol of the finances had now become exceedingly difficult to 
fill. Two financiers having attempted, without success, to 
supply the place of Necker, the office was given, in 1783, to 
Calonne, who abandoned reforms, and made a boast of prod- 
igality. 

9. War between Great Britain and the American Colonies 
Slaving broken out, many Frenchmen, among whom were the 
Marquis de Lafayette, and other officers and engineers, cross- 
ed the Atlantic to aid the Americans ; and France soon after 
declared war against England. On the return of peace, in 
1783, the difficulties increased ; the enormous public ex- 
penses had brought the finances into the most embarrassed 
condition, and the government was reduced to a stand for 
want of supplies. 

10. Various causes had been, for some time, at work to 
produce a revolution in France, which was now about to burst 
forth, and convulse not only that country, but the whole civ- 
ilized world. Some of the principal of these causes, were 
the progress of philosophy, the diffusion of information, and 
the freedom of thinking on subjects of government and re- 
ligion ; the notions and feelings in favor of liberty excited by 
the American revolution, and disseminated by the return of 
the French officers and army from the United States ; the 
prevalence of infidelity among the literary classes ; the des- 
potism of the government, and the abuses both of the eccle- 
siastical and political establishments; the odious privileges 
of the nobility and clergy, especially their exemption from 
taxes ; the desire of the nobility to regain those privileges of 
which they had been stripped by the crown ; and the discon- 
tent of the mass of the people on account of their oppressed 
condition, being the despised portion of the state, yet bearing 
all its burdens. All these circumstances had an influence in 
preparing the way for this great event ; yet the more imme- 
diate cause of the revolution was the derangement of the 
finances. 

11. All plans for restoring the finances to order having 
proved ineffectual, Louis, by the advice of Calonne, convoked 
an assembly of the Notables, a body consisting of persons 
selected by the king, chiefly from the higher orders of the 
state. To this assembly it was proposed to levy a land-tax, 
proportioned to property, without any exception in favor of 
the nobility or clergy ; but being little inclined to make 
sacrifices, they refused to sanction the measure. 



FRANCE. 153 

12. Calonne, finding it impossible any longer to maintain 
his ground, resigned his office, and was succeeded by Brienne, 
archbishop of Toulouse. But the assembly of Notables still 
continuing unmanageable and parsimonious, recourse was 
then had to the Parliament of Paris, but without success, and 
a convocation of the States-General was demanded. This 
body, which was composed of three orders, nobility, clergy, 
and the third estate, or commons, had not been assembled 
since 1614 ; and it never had a regular existence. 

13. Necker was again recalled to power; and a second 
assembly of the Notables was convoked, in order to determine 
the form and composition of the States-General. Necker 
proposed that the deputies of the commons should equal, in 
number, those of the other two orders united ; but the Nota- 
bles refused to concur in the measure. It was, however, 
sanctioned by the king, and carried into effect. The com- 
mons chose able men ; and on the 5th of May, 1789, the as- 
sembly of the States-General was opened at Versailles. This 
body carried forward a revolution, which was now effectually 
commenced. 

14. The king addressed the States-General in a concilia- 
tory speech, no longer using the language of a sovereign who 
expected implicit obedience to his will. But difficulties soon 
arose respecting the manner in which questions should be 
decided, whether by a majority of orders or of polls, and 
whether there should be a separation or union of the three 
branches. 

15. At length the commons, together with such of the 
nobility and clergy as were disposed to unite with them, on 
the motion of the Abbe Sieyes, seized the legislative authority, 
declared themselves the representatives of the people, consti- 
tuted themselves the National Assembly, a body " one and 
indivisible." Of this assembly, JBailly was the president, 
and Mirabe.au, a man of brilliant talents and great eloquence, 
was the popular leader. The Duke of Orleans, a descend- 
ant of Louis XIII., noted for his immense wealth and profli- 
gacy, was also a prominent member. 

16. The first decree of the National Assembly was an act 
of sovereignty ; and by proclaiming the indivisibility of the 
legislative power, it placed under its dependence the privi- 
leged orders. Thus Louis found that his authority was, in a 
great measure, wrested from him ; and the great body of the 
nobility and clergy, by their refusal to unite with the com- 
mons, likewise saw themselves shut out from power, and their 
privileges invaded. 



154 FRANCE. 

17. During the irritated state of the public mind, the king 
again dismissed Necker from office. This unpopular meas- 
ure was the signal for insurrection in Paris, which was soon 
In a state of violent commotion. The Bastile, a huge state 
prison, was demolished by the populace ; other excesses were 
committed in the city and elsewhere, by the furious rabble, 
and by mobs of frantic women of the vilest character. The 
army united with the people ; the nobles emigrated for safety, 
and for foreign aid ; the king, queen, and royal family, were 
forced, on the 6th of October, from Versailles to the capital 
by the ungovernable mob : but were protected from violence 
by the influence and efforts of Lafayette, who commanded 
the national guard. In consequence of this removal, the 
Assembly adjourned its sittings to Paris. 

18. The progress of the revolution was rapid, and produc- 
ed the most important consequences. The seat of power 
was changed, and all the preliminary alterations were effect- 
ed. The three orders were discontinued ; the States-General 
converted into the Assembly of the nation ; the royal author- 
ity nearly annihilated ; the privileges of the nobles and clergy, 
and the feudal system, in all its branches, abolished; re- 
ligious liberty and the freedom of the press established ; the 
church lands confiscated ; the monasteries suppressed ; and 
France was divided into 83 departments. 

19. After these measures were accomplished, the great 
design of the National Assembly was, the formation of a con- 
stitution, and from this circumstance, it is denominated the 
Constituent Assembly. While engaged in its deliberations, 
Louis and his family, finding their situation uncomfortable, 
escaped from Paris, but were stopped on the frontiers of the 
kingdom, and brought back. A constitution, which estab- 
lished limited monarchy, and the equality of all ranks, was at 
length completed, and accepted by the king, and the assem- 
bly dissolved itself on the 30th of September, 1791. 

20. The next assembly, styled the Legislative Assembly, 
met on the first of October, and was composed wholly of new 
members, as the members of the Constituent Assembly were, 
by their own act, excluded from holding seats in it. Soon 
after the commencement of the revolution, various political 
clubs were formed in Paris, of which the Jacobin club (so 
called from its meeting in a convent of suppressed Jacobin 
monks) was the most prominent, and insensibly absorbed all 
the rest ; and, for a time, this factious association governed 
the capital, and controlled the Assembly. 



FRANCE. 155 

21. On the 21st of September, 1792, a new body, styled 
the National Convention, commenced their deliberations ; 
and at their first sitting, they abolished the regal government, 
and declared France a republic. The king was arraigned 
at their bar to answer to various charges ; he appeared before 
them with a firm and manly countenance, and looked round 
upon the assembly with an air of resolution. 

22. Deseze, one of the defenders of the king, ended his 
speech with these words : " Listen to History, who will say to 
Fame — Louis, who ascended the throne at the age of twenty, 
carried with him there an example of morals, of justice, and 
of economy : he had no weaknesses, no corrupting passions, 
and he was the constant friend of his people. The people 
desired that a disastrous impost should be abolished, and 
Louis abolished it ; the people asked for the destruction of 
servitudes, and Louis destroyed them ; they demanded re- 
forms, he consented to them ; they wished to change the laws 
by which they were governed, he agreed to their wish ; the 
people required that several millions of Frenchmen should 
recover their rights, and these he restored to them ; the peo- 
ple asked for liberty, and he gave it. No one can dispute 
that Louis had the glory of anticipating the demands of his 
people by making these sacrifices ; and it is he whom it has 
been proposed to.... Citizens, I cannot go on ; I pause in the 
presence of History : remember that History will judge your 
judgment, and that her decision will be that of ages to 
come." 

23. But the passions of the Convention were deaf and 
unmoved ; and the sentence of death was pronounced by a 
majority of 26 out of 721 voters. The king was carried to 
the place of execution, and mounted the ladder of the scaffold 
with a firm step. " I die innocent," said he ; "I forgive my 
enemies ; and you, unfortunate people...." At this moment, the 
noise of the drums drowned his voice ; the executioners seiz- 
ed him ; and the axe of the guillotine separated his head from 
his body, on the 21st of January, 1793. Thus perished, at 
t 1 e age of thirty-nine, and after a most disastrous reign of 
eighteen years and a half, this well disposed, but most un- 
fortunate monarch. 



156 FRANCE. 

SECTION VII. 

The Revolution continued : — Robespierre ; Bonaparte; Euro- 
pean War: — Louis XVIII. ; Charles X. 

1. A new constitution was published by the Convention ; 
the executive power was lodged in a Committee of Public 
Safety ; and the revolutionary tribunal was erected under 
Robespierre and his associates, whose bloody domination is styl- 
ed " the reign of terror." Two factions soon arose in the 
National Convention, one styled the Mountain party, from 
their occupying the most elevated seats in the hall of the 
Convention, — these were the most violent revolutionists, and 
advocates for the extreme of democracy ; the other, named 
Girondists, because some of their leaders were from the de- 
partment of the Gironde, — these were more moderate, and 
more distinguished for love of order and equity. The leaders 
of the former were Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, men 
almost unparalleled in depravity and cruelty : of the latter, 
the leaders were JBrissot, Vergniaud, and Condorcet. 

2. The Mountain party, having gained the ascendency over 
their opponents, were instrumental in causing the most horrid 
massacres. They condemned and executed the Queen An- 
toinette, and guillotined Brissot, Vergniaud, and 20 others 
of the Girondists. That monster of vice, the Duke of Or- 
leans, suffered the same fate from the hands of the very party 
that he had materially contributed to bring forward to serve 
his own purposes. 

3. The Convention abandoned themselves to the most ex- 
travagant excesses : on the motion of Gobet, archbishop of 
Paris, they suppressed the Christian religion ; passed a de- 
cree that the only French deities hereafter should be Liberty, 
Equality, and Reason ; established a republican calendar ; 
abolished the Sabbath, and instead of it, made every 10th day 
a day of rest. The churches were plundered of their gold 
and silver ; and even their bells were melted and cast into 
cannon. 

4. Tne Convention was at length divided anew into #o 
most violent parties ; Robespierre at the head of on ., and 
Danton of the other. Robespierre triumphed, an . all his 
most active opponents were guillotined ; but his own fate soon 
followed, being condemned and executed on a charge of 
tyranny, in July, 1794. The Jacobins were soon after sup- 
pressed by the Convention ; and during the next year, the 



FRANCE. 157 

third constitution was proclaimed, the executive power being 
vested in Jive directors. — From 1791 to 1799, four different 
constitutions were formed. By the 4th, adopted in 1799, the 
executive power was vested in three consuls, of whom Bona- 
parte was elected to be first, Cambaceres the second, and Le 
Brun the third. 

5. The French revolution was at first political, as directed 
against the absolute power of the court and the privileges of 
the higher classes ; but it afterwards became military, be- 
cause Europe attacked it. The European sovereigns, fearful 
of its consequences in their respective dominions, attempted 
to put it down ; but on the contrary, they extended its sphere. 
It was destined in its progress to work a change in the politics 
of Europe, by terminating the struggle of the kings with each 
other, and beginning one between the kings and the people ; 
and in its final result, it diminished the power of the sovereigns 
and the privileges of the nobility and clergy, and promoted 
the liberty of the people and the advancement of civilization. 

6. Before the execution of the king, many of the clergy 
and nobility, together with multitudes of persons, attached to 
the ancient order of things, had fled from France, through 
fear of personal danger, and to solicit foreign aid. A power- 
ful body was thus collected on the frontiers, who were assist- 
ed by the surrounding nations, especially the Prussians and 
Austricms, in their efforts to reestablish royalty and tranquil- 
lity. This was the origin (1792) of the First of that series 
of Coalitions against France, into which nearly all the powers 
of Europe successively entered. On the death of the king, 
Great Britain and Holland, and soon afterwards Russia and 
Spain also, declared war against France. 

7. The invading army was commanded by the Duke of 
Brunswick, who injudiciously published a threatening mani- 
festo, the effect of which was to irritate the revolutionists into 
greater violences, to hasten the execution of the king, and to 
unite all parties in the defence of the country. 

8. The combined invasion under the Duke of Brunswick 
was completely overthrown. France in her turn became the 
assailant ; and her army under Dumouriez conquered the 
Netherlands in the autumn of 1792; and afterwards Holland, 
Switzerland, and a part of Germany, yielded to her arms. 
The republic, having made peace with several of the German 
princes, turned her views towards Italy ; 2nd the command 
of the army was (1796) given to Napoleon Bonaparte, then 
a young man in the 27th year of his age, who had previously 

14 



158 FRANCE. 

distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon. By a series of 
rapid victories, this extraordinary man retrieved the affairs of 
France, and obliged the Austrians to sign, in 1797, the treaty 
of Campo Formio, by which the conquests of the French in 
the Netherlands were confirmed, and the Milanese ceded to 
the new Cisalpine Republic : whilst the Venetian territories 
were given up to Austria. 

9. The Second Coalition was formed after the defeat of the 
French fleet, in 1798, by that of the English, under Nelson, 
in the bay of Aboukir, off the mouth of the Nile. Before this 
event, Bonaparte had invaded Egypt, defeated the Mamelukes 
in the battle of the Pyramids, and taken possession of Cairo 
and all the Delta. 

10. In the campaign of 1799, the French were very unfor- 
tunate ; the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, and the 
Russians, under Suwarrow, gained a number of important 
victories in the north of Italy, in Switzerland, and in Germa- 
ny : by their united forces, the very frontiers of France were 
threatened ; whilst the ill conduct of the Directory at home, 
brought the country to the brink of ruin. At this crisis, Bo- 
naparte, who had proceeded from Egypt to Syria, and taken 
Jaffa, returned to Paris, and, by the aid of Fouche, Cambace- 
res, Talleyrand, Lucien Bonaparte, and Sieyes, together with 
a military force, he abolished the Directory, framed a new 
constitution, and caused himself to be elected first consul. 

11. From this moment, the affairs of the republic took a 
new turn. By his activity and energy, Bonaparte overcame 
the intrigues of all his rivals, introduced a new order of things 
in the different departments of state ; suppressed the various 
factions, that had long raged in the empire ; and, by the ref- 
ormation of many abuses, restored order and tranquillity to 
the government. 

12. After this, he put himself at the head of the army ; and 
having effected the celebrated passage of the Alps, defeated 
the Austrians under Melas, in the memorable battle of Ma- 
rengo, which decided the fate of Italy. This victory, together 
with tine defeat of the Austrians at Hohevlinden, by the French 
under Mnreau, and other successes, led the way to the peace 
of Luncville with Austria and the German empire (1801); 
and afterwards to the peace of Amiens, with England ( 1802) : 
thus Europe, for the first time since the late revolution, enjoy- 
ed the blessings of universal peace. 

13. The limits of France were now greatly enlarged, and 
Bonaparte, as first consul, exercised an absolute sway over 



FRANCE. J59 

almost all the continent of Europe west of the Adriatic and 
the Rhine. Soon after the establishment of peace, he restored 
the Catholic religion, concluded a concordat or convention 
with the pope, granted toleration to all religions, and institu- 
ted the Legion of Honor. 

14. He was next elected first consul for life, with supreme 
power ; but a conspiracy was now ibrmed against him, in 
which Moreau, Pichegru, Georges, and other eminent men 
were accused of participating. Moreau was banished to 
America; Pichegru was strangled; Georges and 11 others 
were guillotined ; and the Duke cVEnghien was shot with- 
out trial. — In 1804, Bonaparte was proclaimed Emperor of 
France, and was crowned by the pope ; the next year, he as- 
sumed also the title of King of Italy. 

15. The peace of Amiens was of short duration. In 1803, 
the war was renewed between France and England ; Bona- 
parte seized Hanover, and threatened to invade the British 
isles ; and in 1805, the Third Coalition was formed by Eng- 
land, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and afterwards Prussia. The 
emperor immediately put himself at the head of the French 
army ; carried his rapid and victorious arms to Ulm, where 
he captured the Austrian army of 33,000 men under Mack ; 
and, in the memorable battle of Austerlitz, defeated the united 
forces of Russia and Austria ; at which battle the three em- 
perors were present. This great victory terminated the cam- 
paign, and brought about the peace of Presburg, by which 
Austria ceded to the French the Venetian territories, and 
submitted to other humiliating conditions. 

16. A few weeks before the battle of Austerlitz, the Eng- 
lish fleet, under Lord Nelson, gained a great victory off Cape 
Trafalgar, over the combined fleets of France and Spain. 
The English captured 19 ships of the line, but lost their great 
admiral, who was slain in the action. 

17. The king of Naples having permitted a British and 
Russian army to land in his dominions, the emperor of France 
deposed the Neapolitan dynasty, and raised his brother Joseph 
to the throne ; he also compelled the Dutch to receive his 
brother Louis, as king of Holland. He next subverted the 
constitution of the German empire, and formed a union of 
several states, under the title of " The Confederation of the 
Rhine," of which he was chosen protector. Francis II. sol- 
emnly resigned his title as " emperor of Germany and king 
of the Romans," and took that of hereditary emperor of Aus~ 
tria. The electors of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Saxony t 



160 FRANCE. 

joined the Confederation, and were raised, by Bonaparte, to 
the rank of kings. 

18. The vast accession of power acquired by this alliance, 
was the cause of new jealousies, and hastened the Fourth 
Coalition, formed in 1806, by which Prussia, Russia, Austria, 
Sweden, and England, were united in the war against France. 
Hostilities were commenced by the Prussians, without waiting 
for the aid of Russia ; but Bonaparte, with his usual good for- 
tune, gained over them the great battles of Jena and Auer- 
stadt ; entered the capital of Prussia as a conqueror, and 
here commenced the "-Continental System" against English 
commerce, by issuing the Berlin Decree, declaring the British 
islands in a state of blockade, and ordering all ports to be 
shut against them. The French army penetrated into Poland, 
and gained an advantage over the Russians, in the hard-fought 
battle of Pultusk. 

19. The following year, Bonaparte fought with the Russians 
the indecisive battle of Eylau ; defeated them at Friedland ; 
and having gained possession of Dantzic and Konigsberg, 
concluded the peace of Tilsit. Separate treaties were made 
with Russia and Prussia : the former gained a small acquisi- 
tion of territory; but the dominions of the latter were reduced 
almost one half; both agreed to shut their ports against Eng- 
land, and thus became parties in the French emperor's favor- 
ite object of excluding British commerce from the continent. 
The provinces conquered from Prussia were erected into the 
new kingdom of Westphalia, of which Jerome Bonaparte was 
acknowledged king. 

20. The English government, in retaliation of Bonaparte's 
Berlin Decree, issued their Orders in Council, by which all 
neutral vessels trading with France were compelled to stop at 
a British port and pay a duty. After the peace of Tilsit, the 
emperor proceeded to Italy ; and at Milan, in consequence 
of the Orders in Council, he issued his Milan Decree, by 
which every vessel which submitted to British search, or con- 
sented to any pecuniary exactions whatever, was confiscated. 

21. Elated by his astonishing successes, the emperor of 
France appeared now to consider himself as sovereign of 
Europe, and to set at defiance all principles of justice and 
moderation. Being ambitious of appropriating more of the 
thrones of Europe to his brothers and relatives, he next fixed 
his attention on Spain and Portugal ; and so decisive was 
he in the execution of his plans, that in a short time, th® 
royal family of Portugal emigrated to Brazil. 



FRANCE. 161 

22. Though Charles IV., king of Spain, had shown him- 
self subservient to the views of the French emperor, yet the 
latter was not content, but compelled the Spanish monarch 
to resign his crown in favor of his brother Joseph Bonaparte, 
whom he removed from Naples, and caused to be proclaimed 
king of Spain ; and he raised to the throne of Naples Murat, 
who had married his sister. 

23. The Spaniards rose in opposition to this tyrannical 
measure, and in this emergency, had recourse to England, 
who readily afforded her assistance. The war which was 
thus excited in the peninsula, continued to rage from 1808 to 
1813; and, in a series of engagements, the forces of England 
and Spain, under the command of Wellington and others, 
were, in most instances, victorious over the armies of France. 
Some of the principal exploits in this war, were the desperate, 
but ineffectual defence of Saragossa, by Palafox, and the 
victories of Wellington at Talavera, Salamanca, and Vittoria. 

24. In 1809, while the war was raging in Spain, hostilities 
again broke out between France and Austria, which were 
prosecuted by Bonaparte with his usual success. Having 
gained advantages over the Austrians at Abensberg, Eckmuhl, 
and Ratisbon, he entered Vienna; afterwards fought, against 
the Archduke Charles, the indecisive battle of Aspern or 
Essling, and entirely defeated him at Wagram. 

25. This war was terminated by the treaty of Vienna or 
Schoenbrunn, by which Francis IT., the emperor of Austria, 
was compelled to submit to considerable losses of territory, 
to accede to the " continental system," and, what was more 
humiliating, to promise his daughter Maria Louisa, in mar- 
riage to his great and victorious enemy. In consequence of 
this treaty, Bonaparte was solemnly divorced from his empress 
Josephine, and became allied to the imperial house of Austria. 

26. By the treaty of Tilsit, Alexander, the emperor of Rus- 
sia, had acceded to Bonaparte's " continental system" against 
England, by agreeing to exclude British goods from his do- 
minions ; but the consequences of this measure were ex- 
tremely injurious to his subjects, and ruinous to his finances. 
The year (1811) was spent in negotiations and discussions; 
but as they did not promise an amicable adjustment, both 
parties prepared for war. Early in the spring of 1812, Bona- 
parte collected, in Poland, an immense army, consisting of 
400,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, and 1,200 pieces of artil- 
lery ; and on the 24th of June, crossing the Niemcn, he in- 
vaded the Russian territories. 

14* 



102 FRANCE. 

27. His march was directed towards Moscow, the ancient 
capital of the empire, and was every where marked with des- 
olation and blood. He defeated the Russians at Smolensk ; 
il>ught the tremendous battle of Borodino, or Moskwa, in 
which nearly 30,000 men fell on each side ; proceeded after- 
wards to Moscow, which he found enveloped in flames, and 
abandoned by the inhabitants. The city had been set on fire 
by the Russians, in order to prevent the French from deriving 
any advantage from possessing it : and nearly three fourths 
of it were consumed, before the conflagration ceased. 

28. This extraordinary transaction was the cause of the 
greatest mortification and disappointment to Bonaparte. He 
had imagined that, after obtaining possession of Moscow, he 
should become the arbiter of the whole Russian empire, and 
be able to prescribe to it such a peace as he should think 
proper. But his good fortune had now forsaken him ; and 
findino- himself thwarted in this object, the Russian generals 
concentrating their forces around him, and the horrors of a 
Russian winter approaching, he thought it most prudent to 
evacuate the city, and retreat towards the frontiers. 

29. Then followed, amidst the solitudes and snows of Rus- 
sia, in consequence of cold and famine, a series of disasters, 
losses, and sufferings, which are scarcely paralleled in his- 
tory, and which issued in the almost entire destruction of the 
invading army* About 30,000 horses perished by the sever- 
ity of the weather in a single day ; all the pieces of cannon 
were lost ; and only about 30,000 men remained to re-cross 
the Niemen. 

30. After the remnant of the French army had effected 
fche disastrous passage of the Berezina, near the frontiers of 
Russia, the emperor quitted ,t, and fled, in disguise, through 
Poland and Germany to Paris. He resolved to hazard anoth- 
er campaign, and raised a fresh army of 350,000 men ; but 
he was now opposed by the Fifth Coalition, consisting of 
Russia, Prussia, Austria, some of the confederates of the 
Rhine, and Sweden, subsidized by England. 

31. Bonaparte again put himself at the head of his army ; 
was worsted by the Allies in the battle of Lutzen ; defeated 
£hem in the battle of Bautzen ; repulsed them at Dresden, 
where Moreau was slain ; but was utterly routed in the tre- 
mendous battle of Leipsic, with the loss of 40,000 men in 
killed, wounded, and prisoners. The combatants, in this ac- 
tion, called the " Battle of Nations," exceeded 400,000 ; a 
greater number than has been engaged in any other battle in 
modern times. 



FRANCE. 163 

32. Bonaparte made his escape from the scene of his de- 
feat, and proceeded to Paris. In his address to the senate, 
he frankly acknowledged his disasters. " All Europe," said 
he, " was with us a year ago — all Europe is now against us." 
Having attempted in vain to rouse the French people, he 
again joined his army. In the mean time, the Allies had 
crossed the Rhine, and penetrating, after a desperate struggle, 
into the heart of France, they entered Paris. 

33. The situation of Bonaparte having now become hope- 
less, he abdicated the throne of France, and, after various de- 
liberations, the island of Elba was fixed upon for his future 
residence ; but he was allowed to retain the title of emperor. 
The mighty empire which he had raised, was suddenly 
crumbled to the dust ; and Louis XVIII. was restored to the 
throne of his ancestors. 

34. A General Congress was immediately assembled at 
Vienna, to arrange and settle the affairs of Europe, with a 
view to restore, yet with many variations, the ancient order 
of things. But while the sovereigns were deliberating on 
these matters, Bonaparte, dissatisfied with his situation, made 
another effort to regain the throne of France. Landing at 
Frejus, he marched with 1140 men, without opposition, 
through the country ; presented himself in an open carriage 
to the royal army at Melun ; was received with shouts of ap- 
plause ; the same evening, entered Paris in triumph, amiust 
the loudest acclamations : and was proclaimed emperor ; and 
Louis XVIII. fled, on his approach, to the frontiers. This 
progress of the exiled emperor through France, which was 
one of the most extraordinary exploits that he ever perform- 
ed, is without a parallel in history, and evinces, in the most 
striking manner, his ascendency over the French nation. In 
20 days from his landing at Frejus, he found himself quietly 
seated on the throne, without having spilled a drop of blood. 

35. Aware that he had not returned to his former power, 
he therefore, in order to strengthen his authority, issued some 
popular decrees, establishing the freedom of the press, abol- 
ishing the slave-trade, and regulating the taxes which weigh- 
ed most heavily on the people : he also condescended to offer 
them the plan of a constitution very different from the system 
of despotism upon which he had before acted, and containing 
mny excellent regulations. 

36. He had, however, but little time for legislative meas- 
ures. As soon as his arrival in France was hnown at Vienna, 
he was declared by the Congress a traitor, anu an outlaw ; 



154 FRANCE. 

and a new and formidable coalition was immediately formed 
against him among the European powers. He placed him- 
self once more at the head of a large army, but was entirely 
defeated by the Allies under the command of Wellington and 
Blucher, in the memorable battle of Waterloo, which cost 
the French army upwards of 40,000 men in killed and 
wounded. 

37. This battle sealed the fate of Bonaparte. He returned 
immediately to Paris, abdicated the throne in favor of his son, 
and afterwards surrendered himself to captain Maitland, of 
the Bellerophon, claiming, in a letter to the Prince Regent 
of England, an asylum, " like Themistocles, among the most 
powerful, most constant, and most generous of his enemies." 
By the unanimous agreement of the allied sovereigns, he was 
sent a prisoner to St. Helena, where he arrived on the 17th 
of October, 1815 ; and there died on the 5th of May, 1821, 
in the 6th year of his captivity, and 52d of his age. 

38. The career of Bonaparte surpassed, in many respects, 
that of every great conqueror who preceded him. No other 
man has appeared on the theatre of the world, who has been 
the cause of so many and so astonishing revolutions, or whose 
contemporary fame has been so widely extended. In his 27th 
year, he was raised to the chief command of the French army; 
at the age of 30, he caused himself to be elected first con- 
sul ; and in his 35th year, he was proclaimed emperor of 
France. During the ten years that he possessed the imperial 
throne, he was the most powerful potentate, not only of the 
age, but of modern times ; and he made the world tremble by 
the terror of his name. 

39. He may be emphatically called a king-maker ; for he 
raised to the rank of kings, three brothers, one brother-in- 
law, and three German electors ; Bemadottc, also, one of his 
generals, was raised to the throne of Sweden. The last four 
were recognized, by the Congress of Vienna, among the le- 
gitimate sovereigns of Europe. 

40. He united in his own person, at an early period of his 
life, and in an advanced state of society, the conqueror, the 
usurper, and the lawgiver. He triumphed over civilized en- 
emies ; legislated in a refined age ; and seized upon the scep- 
tre of a powerful and enlightened people, among powerful and 
enlightened rivals. To him France is indebted for an admi- 
rable code of laws, in the formation of which he was an effi- 
cient agent ; in which he greatly prided himself; and with 
regard to which he was repeatedly heard to say, he " could 
wish to be buried with it in his hands." 



FRANCE. 165 

41 He favored, in many instances, liberal principles ; pat- 
ronized merit independent of rank ; encouraged liberally such 
branches of science as were useful to his purposes ; granted 
religious toleration ; removed or diminished many abuses ; 
broke down oppressive feudal and ecclesiastical institutions 
and establishments ; and left France, and also Europe, in 
many respects, in a better condition than he found them, 
But though he was not more unprincipled than other great 
conquerors have been, yet his ruling passion was evidently 
insatiable ambition and lust of power, to which he was ready 
to sacrifice every principle of justice and humanity. No man 
ever enjoyed a greater opportunity of benefiting his species 
than he ; but this opportunity he cast away, except so far as 
it suited his own purposes of self-aggrandizement. He chose 
to be an Alexander or a Caesar, rather than a Washington ; a 
subverter, rather than a protector of liberty ; a terror and a 
scourge, rather than a delight and a blessing to mankind. 

42. He exercised over his own dominions a military des- 
potism : his ambition prompted him to sacrifice, without scru- 
ple, the rights and independence of nations ; and rendered 
him an enemy to freedom, and to the repose of the world. 
It was not, therefore, without reason, that the friends of lib- 
erty, of peace, and of human improvement, exulted at his 
downfall. His eventful life, and his miserable end, furnish a 
most instructive lesson on the instability of human affairs, and 
the vanity of human glory. 

43. After the second dethronement of Bonaparte, Louis 
XYITI. was again placed or the throne, and a second paci- 
fication took place at Paris. France was reduced to nearly 
the same limits as before the revolution ; she was compelled 
to restore much of the plunder which had been collected at 
Paris, to pay <£2S,G0Q,000 sterling, as a partial indemnifica- 
tion for the expenses of the war, and to maintain, for five 
years, an army of occupation, consisting of 150,000 of allied 
troops, to be placed in 16 frontier fortresses. In 1817, the 
Allies consented to reduce the army of occupation to one fifth ; 
and in 1818, it was wholly withdrawn. — Murat, who had been 
raised to the throne of Naples, and Marshal Ney, having both 
of them sided with Bonaparte in hi3 attempt to reascend the 
throne of France, were shot. 

44. The principal event during the reign of Louis XVIII. % 
was the unprovoked invasion of Spain, by a French army, 
under the Duke d'Angouleme, by means of which, the designs 



166 FRANCE. 

of the Constitutionalists of that country for establishing a 
more liberal system of government, were frustrated. 

45. Louis XVIII. was succeeded, in 1324, by his brother. 
Count d'Artois, with the title of Charles X., whose reign was 
signalized by two enterprises of foreign war of some impor- 
tance ; one in favor of the Greeks, in which France united 
with England and Russia; the other against Algiers, which 
city, after a siege of 8 days, surrendered to the French army, 
on the 5th of July, 1830. 

46. But the reign of Charles was rendered memorable 
chiefly by the revolution of 1830. Since the restoration of 
the Bourbons, there have existed animated contests between 
the ultra-royalists and the liberal party ; and the government 
endeavored, in various ways, to check the rising spirit of 
liberty, by exerting an influence on the elections, by dissolv- 
ing the chambers, and by restraining the liberty of the press. 
In March, 1830, the chamber of deputies made a strong stand 
against the ministry, of which Prince Polignac was the head; 
and in consequence of this, the chamber was dissolved by 
the king ; new elections were ordered, and the two chambers 
were convoked for August. 3. On the 28th of July, it having 
been ascertained that a large majority of the newly elected 
members were liberal, three ordinances were published by 
the government, one dissolving the chamber before it had 
met, another suspending the liberty of the press, and a third 
altering the law of election. The liberal newspapers were 
suppressed ; the bank refused to discount bills ; the manufac- 
turers discharged their workmen; Paris was soon in a state 
of great commotion ; the citizens took up arms against the 
government, and on the 29th of July, the last of the " three 
days," obtained a complete victory over the king's guards. 
The chamber of deputies met on the 3d of August (Charles 
X. having already fled from Paris) ; declared the throne 
vacant; new-modelled the constitutional charter; invited the 
Duke of Orleans to accept the crown, who, on the 9th of 
August, took the prescribed oath, with the title of Louis 
.Philip, King of the French. 



[For a chronological view of the History of France, see 

page 329.] 



ENGLAND. 167 



ENGLAND. 

SECTION I. 

The History of England: The Roman Conquest: The 
Saxon Conquest : The Heptarchy. — From B. C. 55 to 
A. D. 827. 

1. The history of no country, of either ancient or modern 
times, is richer in various instruction, or calculated to excite 
deeper interest, than that of England. We here see the 
gradual rise of a people from a low state of barbarism, to the 
highest rank in national power, in the arts both of peace 
and war, in commercial wealth, and intellectual and moral 
greatness. 

2. In England, liberty has maintained frequent and bloody 
conflicts with tyranny. No nation can boast of more ardent 
patriots, of firmer and more enlightened friends to the rights 
and liberties of mankind, or men of higher excellence, or of 
greater intellectual endowments, than are presented to us in 
the eventful pages of English history. 

3. To the citizens of the United States, the history of 
England is next in importance to that of their own country ; 
for it is, to a majority of them, the history of their own an- 
cestors ; as it is also of the country from which have been 
derived, in a great measure, their language and literature, 
and their civil and religious institutions. 

4. We feel a peculiar interest and sympathy in the con- 
flicts which civil and religious liberty has there maintained 
with despotism and bigotry ; for our ancestors were, more or 
less, involved in them ; and the first settlement and early 
growth of our own country were, in a great degree, owing to 
oppression and persecution in the parent state. We have a 
fellow-feeling for the English patriots of former days, and the 
memory of John Hampden is scarcely held in greater honor 
in his native country, than in this. 

5. Britain was little known to the rest of the world till t?;e 
time of its conquest by the Romans. Julius CcBsar invaded 
the island 55 years before the Christian era, and conquered a 
part of it. In the reign of the emperor Claudius, the Roman 
general Osto'rius defeated the British king Carac'tacus, and 



168 ENGLAND. 

sent him a prisoner to Rome ; in the reign of Nero, Sueto'* 
nius defeated the Britons under their queen Boadig'ea ; and 
the Roman dominion was completely established by Agric'ola, 
who first landed in Britain A. D. 78. He met with an ob- 
stinate resistance from Gal'gacus, a Caledonian chief, but in 
a few years made a complete conquest of all the southern parts 
of the island. 

6. At the time of this conquest, the Britons were a rude 
and barbarous people, divided into numerous tribes. They 
were clothed with the skins of beasts, and their property con- 
sisted, almost wholly, in their arms and cattle. Their re- 
ligion was druidism, a most cruel superstition ; and the druids, 
their priests, possessed great authority. They taught the 
transmigration of souls, and offered in sacrifice human vic- 
tims, in great numbers. 

7. The Romans built three walls across the island, in order 
to prevent irruptions of the inhabitants from the north : the 
first was built of turf, by the emperor Adrian, extending from 
Sol way Frith to the mouth of the Tyne ; the second, by An- 
toni'nus, of earth and stone, reaching from the Forth to the 
Clyde ; and the third by Sevc'rus, of stone, running nearly 
parallel with that of Adrian. Other works were also con- 
structed by them, the remains of which are still to be seen. 
In the 5t!i century, the Romans took their final leave of Brit- 
ain, 465 years after the landing of Julius Caesar. 

8. Soon afterwards, the Scots and Pirts, from the northern 
part of the island, invaded and ravaged the country. The 
Britons, in their distress, applied for assistance to the Saxons, 
a warlike people, inhabiting the north of Germany. A Saxon 
army of 1,600 men, commanded by two brothers, Hcngist 
and Ilorsa, came to their relief, and the Scots and Picts were 
defeated, and driven into their own territories. 

9. The Saxons, finding the country much superior to their 
own, procured from Germany a reinforcement of 5,000 men. 
Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, took possession of Britain, and 
reduced the inhabitants to submission, or compelled them to 
leave the country, or retreat to the mountains. — From the 
Angles is derived the name of England. 

10. Violent contests afterwards took place, in which king 
Arthur, a British champion, is said to have defeated the Sax- 
ons in 12 different engagements. The whole history of this 
renowned prince is regarded by many as a fiction. But with 
respect to him, Lord Bacon observes, that " in his acts there 
is enough of truth to make him famous, besides that which is 



ENGLAND. 169 

fabulous." The Saxons, however, finally triumphed; and in 
about 150 years after their invasion, the Heptarchy , or Seven 
Saxon kingdoms, were established, which subsisted about 200 
years, exhibiting a series of dissensions and contests. At 
length, Egbert, a prince of the house of Cerdic, the first king 
of Wessex, by his prudence and valor, united them into one 
monarchy, under the name of England. 

11. About 280 years previous to this event, Augustine, with 
40 monks, had been sent to Britain by pope Gregory the 
Great, to convert the Saxons to Christianity : the Britons had 
long before been partially converted. The state of society, 
however, was still barbarous. Christianity, in the defective 
form in which it had been inculcated, had not banished the 
ignorance of the people, nor softened the ferocity of their 
manners. 



SECTION II. 

From the Foundation of the Monarchy to the Norman Con" 
quest— From A. D. 827 to 1066. 

1. Scarcely had Egbert established and regulated his in- 
fant monarchy, when he found himself assailed by formidable 
enemies in the Danes, whose depredations form a prominent 
feature in the early history of England, and who continued, 
for upwards of two centuries, to be a scourge to the country. 

2. The reign of Alfred the Great, the 6th king of England, 
forms a distinguished era in the early history of the monarchy 
In one year he defeated the Danes in eight battles. But by a 
new irruption, they extended their ravages, and forced him to 
solicit a peace. He was compelled to seek his safety, for 
many months, in an obscure part of the country, disguised in 
the habit of a peasant, and lived in a herdsman's cottage as a 
servant. In this humble situation, the herdsman's wife is 
said, on one occasion, to have ordered him to take caie of 
some cakes that were baking by the fire ; but he forgot his 
trust, and let them burn ; for which she severely reprimand- 
ed him. 

3. Success having rendered his enemies remiss, and his 
followers having gained some advantages, he left his retreat ; 
and in order to discover the state of the hostile army, h* 3 en- 
tered the Danish camp in the disguise of a harper. He ex- 
cited so much interest by his musical talents, that he was 

15 



170 ENGLAND. 

introduced to Guthrum, the Danish prince, and remained 
with him some days. Having discovered the unguarded con- 
dition of the Danes, he returned to his adherents, and with a 
large force attacked his enemies by surprise, and defeated 
them with great slaughter. 

4. After having restored tranquillity to his distracted king- 
dom, he employed himself in cultivating the arts of peace, and 
in raising his subjects from the depths of wretchedness, igno- 
rance, and barbarism. According to various historians, he 
divided England into counties, composed a code of laws, es- 
tablished trial by jury, founded the university of Oxford, insti- 
tuted schools, and, for the instruction of his people, translated 
a number of works into the Saxon language. 

5. The character of Alfred shines forth with distinguished 
lustre in a dark age. He was one of the greatest and best 
sovereigns that ever sat on a throne, — equally excellent in his 
private and his public character. He was distinguished for 
his personal accomplishments both of body and mind, and is 
reputed the greatest warrior, legislator, and scholar of the age 
in which he lived. 

6. He was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed the 
Elder, from his being the first English monarch of that name. 
He inherited the military genius of his father, and his reign 
was a continued, but successful struggle against the North- 
umbrians and Danes, who were powerful in the north of 
England. 

7. Athelstan, an able and popular sovereign, was successful 
in his wars with the Danes, Northumbrians, Scots, Irish, and 
Welsh, and he enlarged and strengthened his kingdom. He 
caused the Scriptures to be translated into the Saxon lan- 
guage, and enacted a law which conferred the rank of thane, 
or gentleman, on every merchant who made three voyages to 
the Mediterranean. 

8. Edmund, after a short reign, was assassinated by the 
notorious robber Leolf. Edred was the slave of superstition, 
and became the dupe of the famous Dunstan, who was after- 
wards archbishop of Canterbury, and was canonized as a saint, 
and with regard to whose pretended conflicts with the devil, 
ridiculous stories are related in history. Dunstan possessed 
great abilities, and, under the appearance of sanctity, veiled 
the most inordinate ambition ; yet in these times of supersti- 
tion and barbarism, he gained a wonderful ascendency over 
the sovereign and the people. 

9. Edwy, or Edwin, by marrying Elgiva, a beautiful prin- 
cess nearly related to him, gave offence to Dunstan ; and 



ENGLAND. 171 

archbishop Odo caused her to be put to death in the most 
cruel manner. 

10. Edgar promoted Dunstan to the archbishopric of Can- 
terbury, and made him his chief counsellor. His reign is 
remarkable for being the period in which England was freed 
from wolves. Edgar, having heard of the extraordinary beauty 
of Elfrida, daughter of the Earl of Devonshire, sent Athel- 
wold, his favorite, to ascertain the truth of it. Athelwold, 
overcome by the charms of Elfrida, on his return, assured the 
king that the account of her beauty had been greatly exagger- 
ated, and obtained the king's permission to marry her himself. 
But the king, having afterwards discovered the treachery of 
his favorite, put him to death, and married Elfrida. 

11. Edgar was succeeded by Edward, his son by his first 
marriage, who was assassinated in the 4th year of his reign, 
and 19th of his age, at the instigation of his mother-in-law 
Elfrida ; and from this circumstance he was surnamed the 
Martyr. 

12. Ethelred II. , the son of Edgar and Elfrida, succeeded 
to the throne at the age of 11 years. He was a weak mon- 
arch, surnamed the Unready. The Danes again renewed 
their ravages, and by the order of the king, such of these 
foreigners as were settled throughout England, were massa- 
cred, at the festival of St. Brice, without distinction of age or 
sex. The news of this barbarous transaction, arriving in 
Denmark, fired every bosom with a desire of vengeance. 

13. A large army of Danes, under their king Sweyn (who 
was the grandson of Beatrix, the daughter of Edward the 
Elder), invaded and ravaged the country. Ethelred fled to 
Normandy, and Sweyn was acknowledged sole king of Eng- 
land ; but he survived his exaltation only a short time, and 
Ethelred was again restored. The latter, dying not long after- 
wards, was succeeded by his son Edmund, surnamed Ironside, 
from his strength and valor ; but his abilities and courage 
were insufficient to save his sinking country. 

14. On the death of Sweyn, his son Canute was proclaimed 
king of England by the Danes. Having expelled a younger 
brother who had usurped the throne of Denmark, Canute as- 
serted his claim to the crown of England, invaded the country 
with a numerous army, and compelled the king to divide his 
dominions with him. Edmund was soon after murdered by 
the treachery of Edric, his brother-in-law, and Canute became 
sole monarch. He was the most powerful sovereign of his 
time in Europe, and was styled the Great, from his talents 



172 ENGLAND. 

and successes. In the former part of his reign, he was severe,, 
but in the latter part, mild and beneficent ; and he died la- 
mented. 

15. Canute was succeeded by his son Harold, whose prin- 
cipal amusement was the chase, and who obtained the sur- 
name of Harefoot, from his swiftness in running. On his 
death, the throne was filled by his brother Canute II. or Har- 
dicanute, the last of the Danish kings. The reigns of these 
two monarchs were short, and signalized by few important 
events ; and both died without issue. 

16. The English now shook off the Danish yoke, and re- 
stored the Saxon line in Edioard, brother of Edmund Ironside ; 
though the rightful heir of this line was Edward, surnamed 
the Outlaw, the son of Edmund Ironside, who was now an 
exile in Hungary. Edward had been educated in a monas- 
tery ; and with regard to his life, says Mr. Burke, " there is 
little that can call his title to sanctity in question ; though he 
can never be reckoned among the great kings." He married 
ihe daughter of Godwin, the Earl of Kent, an ambitious and 
powerful nobleman, who acted a conspicuous part during this 
reign. Edward was canonized by the pope, and received 
khe surname of Confessor ; and it was pretended that he was 
iavored with the special privilege of curing the scrofula or 
King's Evil. This power was long supposed to have de- 
scended to his successors, and the superstitious practice of 
touching for that disorder, was continued by the kings of 
England, from this period till the revolution of 1688. 

17. Edward the Confessor, dying without children, is said 
to have bequeathed the crown to William, Duke of Norman- 
dy, though Edgar Atlieling, the son of Edward the Outlaw, 
was rightful heir. Yet Harold, the son of the Earl Godwin, 
and grandson of Esthritha, daughter of Sweyn, was elected 
and proclaimed king by the nobility and clergy. 

18. William of Normandy resolved to maintain his claim 
to the crown of England by force of arms ; and having raised 
an army of 60,000 men, he invaded the country. Harold, at 
ihe head of an army about equal in number, met him, and 
was defeated and slain in the memorable battle of Hastings. 
The Normans lost about 15,000 men ; and the English the 
greater part of their army. The nation soon submitted to the 
©ceptre of William , who was surnamed the Conqueror. 



ENGLAND. 



SECTION III. 



173 



The Norman Family: — William I., the Conqueror; Wil- 
liam II ; Henry I. ; Stephen {of JBlois). — From A. D. 
1066 to 1154. 

1. William possessed great abilities both as a statesman 
and a warrior. In his person he was tall and well propor- 
tioned, and is said to have been so strong, that scarcely any 
other person in that age could bend his bow or handle his 
arms. " He had," says Mr. Burke, " vices in his composi- 
tion, and great ones ; but they were the vices of a great mind; 
ambition, the malady of every extensive genius ; and avarice, 
the madness of the wise : one chiefly actuated his youth, the 
other governed his age. The general run of men he looked 
on with contempt, and treated with cruelty when they op- 
posed him." 

2. He disgusted the English by promoting his Norman 
followeis to all offices of importance. He caused the Nor- 
man language to be adopted in the service of the church, as 
well as in the courts of justice ; he is said to have introduced 
the feudal system, and to have exchanged trial by jury for the 
pernicious one of single combat ; and he compelled the people 
to extinguish their fires at the sound of the curfew hell [the 
fire-covering bell], which was rung at 8 o'clock in the 
evening. 

3. By his forest laws he reserved to himself the exclusive 
privilege of killing game throughout the kingdom ; and made 
it a greater crime to take the life of an animal than that of a 
man. He formed the New Forest by depopulating a tract 
of country about 30 miles in circuit, demolishing 36 parish 
churches, together with the houses of the inhabitants. One 
of the most useful acts of his reign was his compiling Dooms- 
day Book, which contained a register of all the estates of the 
kingdom. 

4. William II, surnamed Rufus, from his red hair, inher- 
ited the ambition and talents of his father ; and was, like him, 
tyrannical, perfidious, and cruel. After a reign of 13 years, 
which was disturbed by insurrections, and by quarrels with 
the ecclesiastics, particularly with Anselm, the primate, he 
was accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrrel, with an arrow 
aimed at a stag in the New Forest. 

15* 



174 ENGLAND. 

5. Henry I., surnamed Reauclerc, or the Scholar, on ac- 
count of his learning, was the younger brother of William 
Rufus. He took advantage of the absence of his eldest broth- 
er Robert, the rightful heir, who was on a crusade to the 
Holy Land, and secured the crown for himself. He invaded 
his brother's Norman dominions, and Robert, on his return, 
was defeated, taken prisoner, and confined in Wales till his 
death. 

6. Henry married Matilda of Scotland, great granddaughter 
of Edmund Ironside, and in this way the Saxon and Norman 
families were united. The latter part of his life was rendered 
disconsolate by the loss of his only son, who was drowned on 
his passage from Normandy : and from that fatal moment, he 
was never seen to smile. Henry was an able, courageous, 
and accomplished sovereign ; but ambitious, licentious, and 
ungrateful. 

7. On the death of Henry, the crown fell by right to his 
daughter Matilda or Maud, married first to Henry V., em- 
peror of Germany, and afterwards to Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
Earl of Anjou. By the latter she had several children, of 
whom the eldest bore the name of Henry. But Stephen, a 
nephew of the late king, the most popular nobleman in the 
kingdom, and distinguished for his ambition, valor, generos- 
ity, and courtesy, seized upon the crown. Matilda immedi- 
ately landed in England, and raising a small army, defeated 
Stephen, and took possession of the crown ; but her haughty 
and despotic behavior caused a revolt, and Stephen, in his 
turn, defeated her, compelled her to quit the kingdom, and 
again obtained possession of the throne. 

8. Henry, the son of Matilda, afterwards invaded England, 
and during the heat of the contest, Eustace, the king's eldest 
son, was removed by a sudden death. Soon after this event, 
the jarring interests of the two parties were reconciled ; Ste- 
phen being allowed to retain the crown during his life, and 
Henry being acknowledged as his successor ; and this trans- 
action was shortly afterwards followed by Stephen's death. — 
During this reign, England was harassed and desolated by a 
succession of civil contentions and wars, which were carried 
on with unrelenting barbarity, by the pillage and destruction 
of the inhabitants, and the conflagration of the towns. 



ENGLAND. 175 



SECTION IV. 

Family of Plant agenet : — Henry IT. ; Richard I. ; John? 
Henry III. ; Edward I. ; Edward II. ; Edward III. ; 
Richard II— From A. D. 1154 to 1399. 

1. Henry II, the first of the Plantagenets, being descend- 
ed by his grandmother from the Saxon kings, and by his 
mother from the Norman family, succeeded to the throne, to 
the great satisfaction of the nation. He is sometimes called 
Sliortmantle, because he brought the use of short cloaks out 
of Anjou to England. In addition to England, he possessed ? 
by inheritance, and by his marriage with Eleanor, heiress of 
the duchy of Guienne, nearly one half of France, and during 
his reign, he conquered Ireland; so that he had more exten- 
sive dominions than any English monarch who had preceded 
him, and was the most powerful sovereign of his age. 

2. Some of the most remarkable circumstances in Henry's 
reign, relate to his contests with Thomas Becket, a man of 
extraordinary talents, who for years acted a prominent part 
on the theatre of public affairs, first in the office of chancel- 
lor, and afterwards in that of archbishop of Canterbury ; and 
who is represented by Catholic historians as a hero and a 
saint, and by others, as a hypocrite and a traitor. While 
chancellor, Becket manifested great pride and ambition, :ind 
his equipage displayed the magnificence of a prince ; but 
when he became archbishop, he laid aside his ostentatious 
parade, put on sackcloth, and wore the habit of a monk. 
Under this show 0/ humility and mortification, he concealed 
the most ambitious designs, and exalted his power to such a 
degree, that it would admit of question, whether the king or 
the primate was the first man in the kingdom. 

3. During the preceding reign, the power of the clergy had 
increased to a most exorbitant height ; they were also ex- 
tremely corrupt in their morals, and committed with impunity 
the most enormous crimes. We are told that it was proved 
in the presence of the king, that since his accession, more 
than 100 murders had been perpetrated by ecclesiastics, not 
one of whom had been punished. 

4. Henry resolved to restrain the authority, and reform the 
abuses of the clergy, and for this purpose, he framed the 
Constitutions of Clarendon ; but he experienced from Becket 
the most determined resistance. After a long series of con- 
tests with the haughty primate, the king was, on a certain 



176 ENGLAND. 

occasion, so exasperated by his audacious conduct, that he 
rashly exclaimed, "What! among all those whom I have 
obliged, is there none who will avenge me of that insolent 
priest ?" The words were scarcely spoken, when four knights 
of the king's household set out with a resolution to avenge 
the wrongs of their sovereign. They pursued the prelate into 
the cathedral, and assassinated him before the altar. 

5. The account of this transaction filled Henry with con- 
sternation, and caused great excitement in England. Becket 
died a martyr to ecclesiastical authority, and the manner of 
his death effected the triumph of his cause. He was canon- 
ized by the pope as a saint, by the title of St. Thomas of 
Canterbury, and numerous miracles were pretended to be 
wrought at his tomb, which became a celebrated resort of pil- 
grims, 100,000 of whom are said to have been present at a 
jubilee which was observed once in 50 years. 

6. Henry publicly expressed his sorrow for having used 
the rash words which had occasioned the death of the pri- 
mate, and expiated his offence by a humiliating penance at 
his tomb. Having approached within three miles of Canter- 
bury, he dismounted, walking barefoot over the flinty road, 
which, in some places, he marked with blood, to the conse- 
crated spot, spent there, in fasting and prayer, a day and 
night, and even presented his bare shoulders to be scourged 
by the monks with a knotted cord. 

7. The latter part of Henry's life furnishes a memorable 
instance of royal infelicity, and affords an instructive lesson 
how little outward greatness and advantages contribute to- 
ward solid happiness ; and that one of the greatest of kings 
may be one of the most miserable of men. His wretchedness 
was, in a great measure, occasioned by his own vices, and 
particularly by his cherishing illicit love for many women, 
one of whom was Rosamond Clifford, who, under the title of 
the Fair Rosamond, is described as the most beautiful woman 
ever seen in England, and who made a conspicuous figure in 
the ballads and romances of the times. 

8. This unrestrained indulgence of the king so irritated his 
queen, that she sought revenge by instigating his four sons, 
when they had scarcely arrived at manhood, to revolt against 
him. Assisted by the king of France, they engaged in a 
series of rebellions, with a design to wrest the crown from 
their father ; so that he was at last forsaken by his friends, 
his wife, and his children. 

9. Henry had manifested for his children, in their more 
early years, an affection bordering on excess ; and when he 



ENGLAND. I77 

at last found that his youngest and favorite son JoJni, like all 
the rest, had joined the confederacy against hiin, he felt that 
his cup of affliction was full ; gave himself up to transports 
of ungovernable grief; cursed the day of his birth ; uttered 
imprecations against his sons which he could never be pre- 
vailed upon to retract; and, worn out with cares, disappoint- 
ments, and sorrows, died of a broken heart. 

10. Henry is ranked among the ablest and most useful 
sovereigns that have occupied the throne of England ; and he 
governed his kingdom much better than his own passions. 
He was distinguished both as a warrior and a statesman ; pos- 
sessed many brilliant, and some amiable qualities ; yet pride 
and passion, caution and duplicity, were prominent features 
in his character. 

11. He was a patron of the arts, particularly of Gothic 
architecture ; and his reign is remarkable for being the period 
when many of the sumptuous English edifices were erected, 
and also for the introduction of various improvements with 
regard to the conveniences and comforts of life. The arts 
of luxury, however, were yet in a rude state. Glass windows 
were regarded as a mark of extraordinary magnificence ; and 
the houses of the citizens of London were constructed of 
wood, covered with thatch, with windows of lattice or paper ; 
they had no chimneys ; and the floors were covered with 
straw. 

12. The description of the magnificence displayed by 
Becket, while he was chancellor of the kingdom, will afford 
some idea of the rude state of the arts. Nobody, it is said by 
contemporary writers, equalled him in refinement and splen- 
dor. " Every day, in winter, his apartments were strewed 
with clean straw or hay, and in summer, with rushes or leaves, 
that those who came to pay their court to him, might not soil 
their fine clothes by sitting on a dirty floor/* 

13. Richard I., surnamed Cceur de Lion, or Lion-hearted,. 
who succeeded his father, Henry II., commenced his reign by 
a cruel persecution of the Jews. The frenzy for the crusades 
was, at this period, at its height in Europe. To a prince of 
the adventurous spirit and military talents of Richard, these 
enterprises presented irresistible attractions ; and after mak- 
ing preparation, he, in connection with Philip Augustus of 
France, embarked on an expedition to the Holy Land. They 
took Acre in concert, and Richard especially acquired great 
renown by his exploits, and defeated the heroic Sal'adin m 



178 ENGLAND. 

the battle of Ascalon, in which about 40,000 of the Saracens 
were slain. 

14. On his voyage homeward, being shipwrecked, he dis- 
guised himself, with an intention of travelling through Ger- 
many ; but he was discovered, and imprisoned by the empe- 
ror. He was ransomed by his subjects for the sum of <£300,000, 
and after an absence of nine years, returned to his dominions ; 
but he died, not long after, of a wound which he received at 
the siege of the castle of Chaluz, in France, belonging to one 
of his rebellious vassals. 

15. Richard, who has been styled the Achilles of modern 
history, was preeminent for his valor, which was almost his 
only merit. Even a century after his death, his name was 
employed by the Saracen cavalier to chide his horse, and by 
the Saracen mother to terrify her children. His ambition, 
tyranny, and cruelty, were scarcely inferior to his valor ; his 
laurels were steeped in blood, and his victories were purchas- 
ed with the impoverishment of his people. 

16. Richard was succeeded by his brother John, who is sup- 
posed to have murdered his nephew Arthur, who was the son 
of Geoffrey, an elder brother, and the rightful heir. Philip 
Augustus of France supported the claim of Arthur to the 
throne ; and, on account of his being murdered, he stripped 
the English monarch of his possessions in that country. In 
consequence of this loss of his territories, John received the 
surname of Lackland. 

17. John excited against himself the displeasure of Inno- 
cent III., the haughty and tyrannical pontiff, who proceeded 
to lay the kingdom under an interdict, and afterwards excom- 
municated the king, and absolved his subjects from their alle- 
giance. The wretched monarch was intimidated into sub- 
mission, and on his knees solemnly surrendered his kingdom 
to the holy see, consenting to hold it as the pope's vassal. 
In this manner, he made peace with the church, but he 
brought upon himself the universal contempt and hatred of 
his people. 

18. The barons, under the direction of Langton, the pri- 
mate, formed a confederacy, and demanded of the king a rat- 
ification of a charter of privileges. John, bursting into a 
furious passion, refused their demand. They immediatelj 
proceeded to open war ; and the king, finding himself de- 
serted, was compelled to yield. He met his barons at Run- 
ny-mede } and after a debate of a few days, signed and sealed 



ENGLAND. 179 

the famous deed of Magna Charta, or the Cheat Charter, 
which secured important liberties and privileges to every order 
of men in the kingdom ; and which is regarded as the great 
bulwark of English liberty. John granted, at the same time, 
the Charter of the Forest, which abolished the exclusive right 
of the king to kill game all over the kingdom. 

19. The character of John is represented as more odious 
than that of any other English monarch ; debased by every 
vice, with scarcely a single redeeming virtue. His reign, 
though most unhappy and disastrous, is, notwithstanding, 
memorable as the era of the dawn of English freedom. 

20. Henry III. succeeded to the throne at the age of only 
nine years, under the guardianship of the Earl of Pembroke, 
He was a weak monarch, timid in danger, presumptuous in 
prosperity, and governed by unworthy favorites. His lot was 
cast in a turbulent period of English history, and his long 
reign of 56 years, consisted of a series of internal conflicts, 
though it was little disturbed by foreign war. 

21. The incapacity of the king was more productive of 
inconvenience to himself, than of misery to his subjects. Un- 
der his weak but pacific sway, the cause of popular freedom 
was advanced, and the nation grew more rapidly in wealth 
and prosperity, than it had done under his military and more 
renowned predecessors. 

22. Towards the latter part of the reign of Henry, the 
barons, with Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, at their 
head, entered into a confederacy to seize the reins of govern- 
ment ; and they compelled Henry to delegate the regal power 
to 24 of their number. These divided among themselves all 
the offices of government, and new modeled the parliament, 
by summoning a certain number of knights, chosen from each 
county. 

23. This measure proved fatal to the power of the barons ; 
for the knights, indignant at Leicester's usurpation, concert- 
ed a plan for restoring the king. A civil war ensued. Lei- 
cester, at the head of a formidable force, defe ited the royal 
army at Lewes, and made both the king and his son Edward, 
prisoners. He compelled the feeble king to ratify his author- 
ity by a solemn treaty; nssumed the character of regent, ? T «d 
called a parliament, summoning two knights from eacli sh-rt, 
and deputies from the principal boroughs. This is regarded 
as the era of the commencement of the House of Commons, 
being the first time that representatives to parliament were 
sent from the boroughs. 



180 ENGLAND. 

24. Prince Edward, having at length regained his liberty, 
took the field against Leicester, and defeated him with great 
slaughter, in the famous battle of Evesham. In this battle, 
Leicester himself was killed, and Henry, by the assistance of 
his son, was again placed on the throne. 

25. Edward Z, sur named Longshanks, from the length of 
his legs, on succeeding to the throne, caused 280 Jews in 
London to be hanged at once, on a charge of having corrupt- 
ed the coin ; and 15,000 were robbed of their effects, and 
banished from the kingdom. He soon after undertook to 
subdue Wales, and having defeated and slain the sovereign 
prince Llewellyn, he annexed the country to the crown of 
England. He created his oldest son Prince of Wales, a title 
which has ever since been borne by the oldest sons of the 
English monarchs. 

26. The conquest of Wales inflamed the ambition of Ed- 
ward, and inspired him with the design of extending his do- 
minion to the extremity of the island. On the death of Alex- 
ander III., who left no son, Bruce and Baliol were competi- 
tors for the throne of Scotland, and Edward was chosen umpire 
to decide the contest between the two rivals. He adjudged 
the crown to Baliol, who engaged to hold it as a vassal of the 
king of England. 

27. Baliol, however, soon afterwards renounced his allegi- 
ance ; hence arose a war between England and Scotland, 
which lasted, with little intermission, upwards of 70 years; 
and drenched both kingdoms with blood. Edward invaded 
Scotland with a large army ; defeated the Scots with great 
slaughter in the battle of Dunbar ; subdued the kingdom ; 
and Baliol was carried captive to London. 

28. While Edward was prosecuting a war in France, the 
Scots were roused to exertion, for the recovery of their inde- 
pendence, by their renowned hero, Sir William Wallace ; 
but after gaining a series of victories, they were at length de- 
feated by the king of England, with immense loss, in the battle 
of Falkirk. Wallace became a prisoner of Edward, who put 
him to death, with the most barbarous cruelty. The Scots 
found a second champion and deliverer in Robert Bruce, 
grandson of the competitor of Haliol, who, having expelled the 
British fi Dm the country, was raised to the throne of his an- 
cestors. Edward prepared to make a new invasion with an 
immense army, but died after having advanced as far as 
Carlisle. 



/ 
ENGLAND. 181 

29. Edward, who was one of the greatest of the English 
sovereigns, was eminent as a warrior ; and on account of his 
wisdom as a legislator, he has been styled the English Jus- 
tinian. But he was, in disposition, a tyrant, and as often as 
he dared, trampled on the liberties, or invaded the property 
of his subjects. He was, however, admired by his contempo- 
raries, and his barons respected the arbitrary sway of a mon- 
arch as violent and haughty as themselves. His reign was 
highly advantageous to the kingdom, particularly for the im- 
provements made in the national code, and the administration 
of justice. He repeatedly ratified Magna Charta, and an im- 
portant clause was added to secure the people from the impo- 
sition of any tax without the consent of parliament. Ever 
since that time, there has been a regular succession of Eng* 
lish parliaments. 

30. Edward II, surnamed of Caernarvon, from the place 
of his birth, soon after succeeding to the throne, in compli- 
ance with his father's dying injunction, invaded Scotland, 
with an army of 100,000 men, which was met at Bannock- 
burn by 30,000 Scots, under their king Robert Bruce. A 
great battle ensued, in which the English sustained a more 
disastrous defeat, than they had experienced since the battle 
of Hastings. 

31. Edward II., who possessed little of the character of his 
father, was of a mild disposition, weak, indolent, fond of pleas- 
ure, and governed by unworthy favorites, the most famous 
of whom were Gaveston and the two Spencers. His inglo- 
rious reign was characterized by the corruption of the court, 
and by contests and war between the king and the barons ; 
and his life was rendered unhappy by a series of mortifica- 
tions and misfortunes. 

32. Isabella, his infamous queen, fixed ner affections, which 
had long been estranged from ner husb?nd, upon Mortimer, a 
powerful young baron, and ahe, together with her Tjaramour, 
formed a conspiracy agair.st the king, and compelled him to 
resign the crown to his son. He was then thrown into a 
prison, and afterwards murdered, by order of Mortimer, in a 
barbarous manner. 

33. Edward III. succeeded to the throne d t the age of 14 
years. A council of regency, consisting of 12 persons, was 
appointed, during the minority of the king; yet Mortimer and 
Isabella possessed the chief control. But Edward, on coming 

16 



182 ENGLAND. 

of age, could not endure the authority of a man who had caus- 
ed the murder of his father, or of a mother stained with the 
foulest crimes. Mortimer was condemned by parliament, and 
hanged upon a gibbet ; and Isabella was imprisoned for life 
at Castle Risings, and continued for 28 years a miserable 
monument of blasted ambition. 

34. The king, soon after he was established on the throne, 
made war with the Scots, and defeated them with great 
slaughter, in the battle of Halidown Hill. On the death of 
Charles IV., he laid claim, in right of his mother, to the crown 
of France, which he attempted to gain by force of arms, in 
opposition to Philip of Valois, who was acknowledged by the 
French nation as the rightful heir. This claim involved the 
two countries in a long and sanguinary war. 

35. After having made his preparations, Edward sailed from 
England with a powerful armament. His fleet, consisting of 
250 sail, encountered that of France, amounting to 400 ships, 
off the coast of Flanders, and gained one of the greatest naval 
victories recorded in history. The loss of the English is stated 
at 4,000 men and 2 ships ; that of the French, at 30,000 men 
and 230 ships. 

36. Edward then invaded France at the head of 30,000 
troops ; and in the famous battle of Cressy, gained a splendid 
victory over Philip, the French king, who had an army of 
upwards of 100,000 men, and whose loss exceeded 30,000. 
This battle is noted not only for the greatness of the victory, 
but also for being the first in English history in which cannon 
was made use of, and likewise for being the scene in which 
Edward the Black Prince, the king's eldest son, then only 16 
years of age, commenced his brilliant military career. — Edward 
afterwards besieged and took Calais, which remained in the 
possession of the English till the time of queen Mary. 

37. While the English monarch was in France, the Scots, 
under their king, David, invaded England, and were defeated 
at Neville's Cross, near Durham, by Philippa, Edward's he 
roic queen, and their king was led prisoner to London. Of 
the four generals under the queen, three were prelates. 

38. John, who succeeded his father in the throne of France, 
took the field with an army of 60,000 men, against the Black 
Prince, who, with only 16,000 troops, gained a signal victory 
at Poictiers. King John was taken prisoner, and led in tri- 
umph, by the victorious prince, to London, where he was kept 
a fellow captive with David of Scotland. 

39. Edward, in the latter part of his reign, sunk into indo- 
lence and indulgence, and experienced a reverse of fortune 



ENGLAND. 183 

and before his death, all his conquests, with the exception of 
Calais, were wrested from him. His son, the Black Prince, 
(so called from the color or covering of his armor,) falling 
into a lingering consumption, was obliged to resign the com- 
mand of the army ; and Charles V. of France, an able sover- 
eign, recovered most of the English possessions in that coun- 
try. The death of the Black Prince, illustrious for his amia- 
ble virtues, as well as for his noble and heroic qualities, plung- 
ed the nation in grief, and broke the spirits of his father, who 
survived him only about a year. 

40. Edward was the most powerful prince of his time in 
Europe, and in personal accomplishments, is said to have 
been superior to any of his predecessors. His domestic ad- 
ministration was, in many respects, excellent, and advanta- 
geous to his subjects. The astonishing victories Ainch cast 
so much military splendor on his reign, and which are ac- 
counted the most brilliant in English history, appear to have 
dazzled the eyes both of his subjects and foreigners, who 
placed him in the first rank of conquerors. But his wars 
with France and Scotland were unjust in their object ; and 
after having caused great suffering and devastation, he at last 
found that the crowns of those kingdoms were beyond his 
reach. 

41. In this reign, chivalry was at its zenith in England ; 
and in all the virtues which adorned the knightly character, 
in courtesy, munificence, and gallantry, in all the delicate 
and magnanimous feelings, none were more conspicuous than 
Edward III. and his son the Black Prince. Their court 
was, as it were, the sun of that system, which embraced the 
valor and nobility of the Christian world. 

42. Richard II, the unworthy son of Edward the Black 
Prince, succeeded to the throne, at the age of 11 years. He 
was indolent, prodigal, perfidious, and a slave to pleasure. 
The administration of the government, during the minority 
of the king, was intrusted to his three uncles, the dukes of 
Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, whose contests embroiled 
all the public measures. Of these the Duke of Lancaster, 
John of Gaunt, or Ghent (so named from the place of his 
birth), was the most distinguished, and was possessed of great 
wealth and power ; but he became unpopular, particularly 
with the courtiers and clergy ; and he was noted for being 
(probably for political reasons) the protector of Wickliffe, the 
Reformer, whose opposition to the tyranny and corruptions 



184 ENGLAND. 

of Rome commenced in the preceding reign, and gained Hra 
many adherents. 

43. A poll-tax of three groats, imposed by parliament upon 
every male and female above the age of 15 years, excited 
universal discontent among the lower classes, on account of 
its injustice, in requiring as much of the poor as of the rich. 
One of the brutal tax-gatherers, having demanded payment for 
a blacksmith's daughter, whom the father asserted to be be- 
low the age specified, was proceeding to improper familiarities 
with her, when the enraged father dashed out his brains with 
a hammer. The spectators applauded the action ; a spirit of 
sedition spread through the kingdom ; and 100,000 insurgents 
under Wat Tyler were soon assembled upon JBlacJcheath. 
But the leader was slain, and his followers were finally com- 
pelled to submit. 

44. V^hile the kingdom was convulsed with domestic con- 
tests, it vas also engaged in hostilities with France and Scot- 
land. At Otterburn was fought, between the English under 
Percy (surnamed Hotspur, on account of his fiery temper), 
and the Scotch under Douglas, a battle, in which Percy was 
taken prisoner, and Douglas was slain. — On this battle is 
founded the celebrated ballad of Chevy Chace. 

45. Richard unjustly banished his cousin Henry, the eldest 
son and heir of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster ; and on 
the death of the duke, he seized upon his estate : but the 
king having afterwards undertaken an expedition to Ireland, 
in order to quell an insurrection, Henry, the young duke, took 
advantage of his absence, returned to England, landed at Ra- 
venspur, soon found himself at the head of a numerous army, 
and compelled Richard, on his return, to resign the crown. 
The king being generally detested, the parliament readily 
confirmed his deposition ; he was then imprisoned, and after- 
wards murdered. 

46. The Duke of Lancaster was raised to the throne with 
the title of Henry IV. ; though Edmund Mortimer was the 
true heir to the crown, being descended from Lionel, the 3d 
son of Edward III. ; whereas Henry was the son of John of 
Gaunt, the 4th son of Edward III. — Llence began contests 
between the houses of York and Lancaster. — During this 
reign and the preceding one, flourished Chaucer, who has 
been styled the Morning Star of English poetry. 



ENGLAND 1Q5 



SECTION V. 

Branch of Lancaster. — Henry IV. ; Henry V. ; Henry 
VI.— From A. D. 1399 to 1461. 

1. Henry IV., surnaraed Bolingbrohe, from the place of 
his bir*h, who succeeded to the throne by the deposition and 
murder of the lawful king, and the exclusion of the rightful 
heir, soon found that the throne of a usurper is but a bed of 
thorns. A combination was immediately formed against him. 
The Scots under Douglas, and the Welsh under Owen Glen- 
dower, took part with the rebels ; but their united forces were 
defeated in a most desperate and bloody battle at Shrewsbury t 
and their leader, Percy [Hotspur], was killed. 

2. While a subject, Henry was supposed to have imbibed 
the religious principles of his father, John of Gaunt, the patron 
of Wickliffe and his followers. But after he was raised to the 
throne, he made his faith yield to his interest : as he needed 
the support of the clergy, he procured their favor by endeavor- 
ing to suppress the opinions which his father had supported ; 
and he has the unenviable distinction of having his name re- 
corded in history, as the first English monarch that burnt his 
subjects on account of religion. 

3. Henry was distinguished for his military talents, and for 
his political sagacity ; and had he succeeded to the throne by 
a just title, he might have been ranked as one of the greatest 
of English monarchs. He had been one of the most popular 
noblemen in the kingdom ; yet, although his reign was, in 
many respects, beneficial to the nation, he became a most 
unpopular sovereign. His peace of mind was destroyed by 
jealousy and by remorse ; he was an object of pity even when 
seated on the throne ; and he felt the truth of the language 
which Shakspeare puts into his mouth ; " Uneasy lies the 
head that wears a crown." 

4. The latter part of his life was imbittered by the extreme 
profligacy of his son Henry, Prince of Wales. One of the 
prince's dissolute companions having been indicted before the 
chief justice, Sir William Gascoigne, for some misdemeanor^ 
he was so exasperated at the issue of the trial, that he struck 
the judge in open court. The venerable magistrate, mindful 
of the dignity of his office, ordered the prince to be committed 
to prison. Henry quietly submitted, and acknowledged his 
error. 

16* 



186 ENGLAND. 

5. When the circumstance was related to the king, he is 
said to have exclaimed, in a transport of joy, " Happy is the 
king who has a magistrate endowed with courage to execute' 
the laws upon such an offender ; still more happy in having a 
son willino- to submit to such chastisement !" 

6. Henry V., on succeeding to the throne, immediately 
assembled his former riotous companions ; acquainted them 
with his intended reformation ; forbade their appearance in 
his presence till they should imitate his example ; and dis- 
missed them with liberal presents. He commended the chief 
justice for his impartial conduct, and encouraged him to per- 
severe in a strict execution of the laws. This victory which 
he gained over himself, is incomparably more honorable to him, 
than the martial exploits which have immortalized his name. 

7. The WicJtfiffitcs, or Lollards, were now numerous in 
England, and had for their leader the famous Sir John Old- 
castle, Lord C'obham, a nobleman of distinguished talents, and 
high in favor with the king. But Henry, in matters of reli- 
gion, being under the influence of an intolerant clergy, and 
particularly of archbishop Arundel, gave up to the fury of his 
enemies the virtuous and gallant nobleman, who was con- 
demned for heresy, hung up by the middle with a chain, and 
roasted alive. 

8. Henry revived the claim to the crown of France ; and 
taking advantage of disorders in that kingdom, invaded it 
with an army of about 15,000 men, and defeated the French 
army, amounting to 60,000 men, in the memorable battle of 
Agincourt. The loss of the French amounted to 11,000 
killed, and 14,000 prisoners. Henry afterwards reduced all 
Normandy, was declared regent of France, and acknowledged 
heir to the crown. But death soon put an end to his career 
of victory. 

9. Henry V. was one of the most heroic of the English 
sovereigns, eminent as a warrior, beloved and adored by mili- 
tary men ; and his short reign is one of the most brilliant in 
English history for military achievement. But his conquests 
were of no benefit to his people. 

10. Henry VI, succeeded to the throne when an infant 
only nine months old, and was proclaimed king both of Eng- 
land and France. His education was intrusted to Cardinal 
Beaufort, brother of his grandfather Henry IV. ; and his 
micles, the dukes of Bedford and Gloucester, were appointed 



ENGLAND. 187 

protectors or guardians of his dominions, the former for 
France, and the latter for England. 

11. Charles VII., the Dauphin, being supported by the 
French people, recovered the kingdom by degrees ; and the 
English being compelled by that extraordinary heroine, Joan 
of Arc, to raise the siege of Orleans, were afterwards strip- 
ped of all their conquests in that country except Calais and 
Guienne. 

12. Henry, on coming of age, proved himself to be mild 
and inoffensive, but totally incapable of managing the reins 
of government : " he would have adorned a cloister, though 
he disgraced a crown." He married Margaret of Anjou, a 
woman whose distinguished talents, ambition, and heroism, 
well fitted her to supply the defects of her husband in the 
wars which distracted his reign ; but her intriguing disposi- 
tion and cruelty multiplied the number of her enemies. 

13. Discontents prevailing among the people, an insurrec- 
tion broke out, headed by Jack Cade, who assumed the name 
of John Mortimer, and collected an army of 20,000 rebels ; 
but he was defeated and slain. 

14. The Duke of Gloucester, a favorite of the nation, the 
chief pillar of the house of Lancaster, and presumptive heir 
to the crown [that is, heir in case the king should die with- 
out issue] , had opposed the marriage of Henry with Margaret. 
From this circumstance, he became odious to the queen, and 
his death soon after took place in a suspicious manner. This 
event, added to the imbecility of the king, encouraged the 
J)uke of York to assert his claim to the crown. 

15. The houses of York and Lancaster were both descend- 
ed from Edward III. ; that of York from his 3d son, and 
that of Lancaster from his 4th : the rightful title was, of 
course, on the side of the former. Each party was distin- 
guished by a particular badge or symbol ; that of the house 
of York was a white rose, and that of Lancaster a red one ; 
hence the civil contests were styled the wars of the Two 
Roses. 

16. This fatal quarrel, which now [1455] broke out into 
open hostilities, lasted 30 years, was signalized by 12 sangui- 
nary pitched battles, and marked by the most unrelenting 
barbarity. During the contest, more than 100,000 of the 
bravest men of the nation, including 80 princes of the blood, 
fell on the field, or were executed on the scaffold. 

17. In the battles of St. Alban's and Northampton, the 
Lancastrians were defeated, and the king was taken prisoner ; 



188 ENGLAND. 

but queen Margaret, having collected a large army, gained 
the battle 3f Wakefield, in which the Duke of York was de- 
feated and slain. But his son and successor, at the head of a 
numerous army, entered London, amidst the shouts of the 
citizens, and was proclaimed king, by the title of Edward IV. 



SECTION VI. 

Branch of York : — Edward IV. ; Edward V. ; Richard 
III— From A. D. 1461 to 1485. 

1. The new king was not permitted to enjoy the crown in 
peace. The heroic Margaret again collected an army of 
60,000 men, which was met by the Yorkists, to the number 
of upwards of 40,000, under the command of Edward and 
the Earl of Warwick. A tremendous battle was fought at 
Towton, in which Edward obtained a decisive victory, and 
upwards of 36,000 Englishmen, slain by one another's hands, 
were left dead on the field. — Henry, having been taken pris- 
oner, was confined in the Tower, and there, after being lib- 
erated, and a second time imprisoned, was finally murdered 
by the Duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. 

2. The unfortunate queen, accompanied by her son, a boy 
eight years old, while flying from her enemies, was benighted 
in Hexham forest, and fell into the hands of ruffians, who 
stripped her of her jewels, and treated her with great indig- 
nity. After she was liberated from them, being overcome 
with fatigue and terror, she sunk in despair ; but was sud- 
denly roused by the approach of a robber, with a drawn sword, 
Seeing no way to escape, she rose and presented to him her 
child : " My friend," said she, " here is your king's son, 
whom I commit to your protection." The man, pleased with 
this unexpected confidence reposed in him, afforded every 
assistance in his power, and conducted the mother and son, 
through numerous perils, to a small sea-port, whence they 
sailed to Flanders. 

3. The house of York had been hitherto supported by the 
important assistance of Nevil, Earl of Warwick, the most 
powerful baron in England, and the greatest general of his 
time. But Edward having given offence to his benefactor, 
Warwick was induced to abandon him, and to support the 
Lancastrians. By his exertions, Edward was deposed, and 
Henry, after having been a prisoner 6 years in the Tower, 



ENGLAND. 189 

was released, and again proclaimed king. Thus Warwick, 
having restored Henry, whom he had deposed, and pulled 
down Edward, whom he had placed on the throne, obtained 
the title of king-maker. 

4. But in the bloody battle of Barnet, Edward prevailed, 
and the brave Warwick was slain. The intrepid Margaret, 
having returned to England, made a last effort for the crown, 
in the desperate battle of Tcickesbury, which proved fatal to 
her hopes. Her son was slain, and she herself was taken 
prisoner ; but was afterwards ransomed by the king of France, 
and in that country she passed the remainder of her life in 
obscurity and neglect. 

5. Edward, being now secured on the throne, gave himself 
up to unrestrained indulgence in acts of tyranny, cruelty, and 
debauchery. His brother, the Duke of Clarence, who had 
assisted him in gaining the crown, he caused, with the con- 
currence of his other brother, the Duke of Gloucester, to be 
impeached and condemned ; and he is said to have been 
drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine. — Edward was possessed 
of talents, and was reputed the handsomest and most accom- 
plished man of his time in England. The love of pleasure 
was his ruling passion. " His character," says an elegant 
writer, " is easily summed up : — his good qualities were cour- 
age and beauty ; his bad qualities, every vice." 

6. Edward IV. left two sons, the eldest of whom, being only 
13 years of age, was proclaimed king, by the title of Edward 
V. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, brother to Edward IV., 
being appointed protector, caused Lord Hastings, and other 
distinguished persons, to be executed without trial ; seized 
the crown, on the pretence that his nephew, Edward V., and 
his brother, the Duke of York, were illegitimate ; and procur- 
ed himself to be proclaimed king, by the title of Richard III. 
After two months, the young princes disappeared, and are 
said to have been smothered in the Tower, by order of 
Richard. 

7. The multiplied and detestable crimes of Richard III. f 
who waded to the throne through the blood of his nearest 
relations, found an avenger in the Earl of Richmond, the 
only surviving heir of the house of Lancaster. The armies 
of the two rivals met at Bosioorth, where a desperate battle 
was fought, which, by reason of Lord Stanley's going over 
to Richmond proved fatal to Richard, who was defeated and 



190 ENGLAND. 

slain ; and his rival was crowned on the field by the title of 
Henry VII This battle terminated the long and bloody con- 
flicts between the two houses of York and Lancaster, which 
had reduced the kingdom to a state of almost savage barbari- 
ty ; laws, arts, and commerce, being entirely neglected for the 
practice of arms. 

8. Richard, who was a man of talents and courage, could 
conceal the most bloody projects under the mask of affection 
and friendship ; and his insatiable ambition led him to perpe- 
trate the most atrocious crimes. He had a harsh and disa- 
greeable countenance, was crook-backed, splay-footed, and 
had his left arm withered ; so that the deformity of his body 
corresponded to that of his mind. 



SECTION VII. 

The Tudor Family : — Henry VII. ; Henry VIII ; Edward 
VI ; Mary ; Elizabeth.— From A. D. 1485 to 1603. 

1. The hereditary right of Henry VII. to the crown was 
very defective ; but he strengthened his claim by marrying 
Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. ; and in this way the two 
houses of York and Lancaster were united. Henry was the 
son of Margaret, great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt ; and 
of Edmund Tudor. The sovereigns of the house of Tudor 
were arbitrary in their principles and character : but their 
reign, though disturbed by conflicts, both domestic and for- 
eign, was, notwithstanding, less convulsed by war, than that 
of any other family of English kings. 

2. The policy of Henry was pacific, and his reign was 
comparatively tranquil : yet it was disturbed by several plots 
and conspiracies, two of which were of a singular character. 
One of these was the attempt of Lambert Simnel, the son of a 
baker, to counterfeit the person of the Earl of Warwick ; the 
other was a similar attempt of Perkin Warbeck, to counterfeit 
the Duke of York, who is said to have been smothered in the 
Tower, by the order of Richard III. By the earlier English 
historians, Warbeck is uniformly represented to have been an 
impostor, but several later writers maintain that he was the 
real son of Edward IV. 

3. Both of the adventurers aspired to the crown, and met 
with considerable support from the people. Simnel, after 
being proclaimed king of England and Ireland, at Dublin, 



ENGLAND. jgj 

was taken prisoner, and instead of being executed, was made 
a scullion in the king's kitchen, and afterwards promoted to 
be falconer. Perkin Warbeck, who maintained his cause by 
force of arms for five years, was supported by many of the no- 
bility, and acknowledged by the kings of France and Scotland ; 
but being at last taken prisoner, he was executed as a traitor ; 
and near the same time, the real Earl of Wanoick, the son 
of the Duke of Clarence, and nephew of Edward IV., the last 
male of the Plant agenets, who had been imprisoned from his 
childhood, for no other crime than his birth, was condemned 
and executed on a charge of treason. 

4. Henry VII. was more deficient in the feelings of the 
ieart, than in the qualities of the mind ; and though much 

respected, was little beloved. He was wholly devoted to 
business ; prudent and sagacious ; little susceptible of the 
social and generous affections; serious and reserved in his 
manners, suspicious in his temper, despotic in his government, 
and avaricious in his disposition — the love of money being 
.lis ruling passion. He was capable of descending to the 
meanest artifices, and of employing the most unprincipled 
agents in extorting money from his subjects, to nil his own 
coffers. Empson and Dudley, two lawyers, gained an infa- 
mous notoriety as instruments of his rapacity and oppression, 
By his frugality and arbitrary exactions, he accumulated im- 
mense wealth, and is said to have left at his death, in ready 
money, the sum of ,£1,800,000, equal to £10,000,000 at 
present. 

5. His reign was prosperous at home, and respected abioad ; 
and though not a popular sovereign, he was, perhaps, next to 
Alfred, the most useful prince, that had hitherto sat on the 
throne of England. He enacted many wise and salutary 
laws ; promoted industry ; encouraged commerce ; reduced 
to subordination a factious and insolent aristocracy ; and 
taught the peaceful arts of civilized life to a warlike and tur- 
bulent people. 

6. By permitting the nobles to alienate their lands, he 
weakened their power, raised the respectability of the lower 
orders, and gave a mortal wound to the feudal system. He 
expended ,£14,000 in building one ship, named " the Great 
Harry" which may be considered as the beginning of the 
English navy ; inasmuch as the government, before this pe- 
riod, had no other mode of raising a fleet, than by hiring or 
pressing the vessels of merchants. 



X92 ENGLAND. 

7. No monarch ever succeeded to the throne of England 
with brighter prospects than Henry VIII. Uniting in his 
person the claims of the two houses of York and Lancaster, 
his title was undisputed : the treasury was well stored, the 
nation at peace, and the state of the country prosperous. He 
was 18 years of age, of beautiful person, accomplished man- 
ners, frank and open in his disposition, possessed of consid- 
erable learning, and fine talents ; and was regarded by the 
people with affection and high expectations. 

8. But these fond expectations were wofully disappointed. 
As the character of the king developed itself, he was found 
to be destitute both of wisdom and virtue, and proved him- 
self an unprincipled and cruel tyrant, rapacious and prodigal, 
obstinate and capricious, fickle in his friendships, and merci- 
less in his resentments, and capable of sending a minister or 
a wife to the scaffold with as little feeling or compunction, as 
he would have shown in ordering a dog to be drowned. " If 
all the pictures and patterns of a merciless prince," says Sir 
Walter Raleigh, " were lost in the world, they might all again 
be painted to the life out of the story of this king." 

9. His government was but little short of a despotism ; and 
one of the greatest wonders respecting it, is the degrading 
servility of the people and parliament, in tamely submitting 
to his tyranny, or becoming the passive instruments of its ex- 
ercise. He chose for his ministers men of eminent talents ; 
but he made them feel the effects of his caprice and cruelty. 
Archbishop Cranmer was almost the only one of great dis- 
tinction among them, who had the good fortune to retain, to 
the last, his confidence and regard. 

10. By his profusion and expensive pleasures, he soon ex- 
hausted the treasures which he inherited from his father. 
Though his military operations were not numerous, yet, in 
the early part of his reign, he made war against Louis XII. 
of France, invaded the country, and, at Guinegast, gained 
the battle of the Spurs, (so named from the rapid flight of the 
French ;) and his general, the Earl of Surrey, gained a bloody 
victory over the Scots, at Flodden, where James IV., and a 
great part of his nobility, were slain. Henry was also, in 
some degree, involved in the wars of the two great rivals of 
the age, Charles V. of Germany, and Francis I of France. 

11. Before he arrived at the age of 30, he wrote a book on 
the Seven Sacraments, against Luther, the Reformer, which 
pleased the pope so much, that he conferred on him the title 
of " Defender of the Faith ;" a title which his successors have 
ever since retained. 



ENGLAND. J93 

12. But the most memorable transactions of Henry's reign 
were his matrimonial alliances, and the consequences which 
flowed from them. His first wife was Catharine of Arragon, 
widow of his elder brother Arthur, daughter of Ferdinand of 
Spain, and aunt of Charles V. He had been contracted to 
her at a very early age, by the influence of his father ; and 
after having lived with her about 18 years, he professed to 
feel conscientious scruples respecting the lawfulness of the 
marriage, on account of her having been the wife of his 
brother ; and conceiving a passion for the beautiful and ac- 
complished Anne Boleyn, he applied to the pope for a divorce. 

13. Having experienced various delays, and imagining that 
his favorite minister, the celebrated Cardinal JVolsey, was the 
chief obstacle in the way of effecting his object, the king re- 
solved on his ruin, and ordered him to be arrested for high 
treason. But the haughty cardinal soon after fell sick and 
died, having exclaimed in the pangs of remorse ; " Had I but 
served God as diligently as I Jiave served the king, he would 
not have given me over in my gray hairs." 

14. The opinions of various universities, favorable to Hen- 
ry's views, having been obtained, and the pope failing to grant 
the divorce, the king caused a court to be held under Cran- 
7)ier, which pronounced his marriage invalid ; and lady Anne 
was soon after crowned queen. The papal jurisdiction in 
England was immediately abolished ; the monasteries sup- 
pressed ; some alterations made in the doctrines and forms 
of religion ; and the king was declared the Supreme Head of 
the English Church. 

15. The separation of England from the Church of Rome, 
was thus begun by the passions of a prince, who meant 
nothing in the world less than the Reformation of religion, 
which was the consequence of it ; and who was a most un- 
worthy instrument of a most important event. Though Hen- 
ry ceased to be a Roman Catholic, he was far from being a 
Protestant. He arrogated infallibility to himself, and caused 
the law of the Six Articles of religion, termed the " bloody 
statute," to be enacted, and condemned to death both Catholics 
and Protestants who ventured to maintain opinions in oppo- 
sition to his own. The venerable Bishop Fisher and the 
celebrated Sir Thomas More were beheaded, for refusing to 
acknowledge his supremacy. 

16. In less than three years after his new marriage, he 
caused Anne Boleyn to be condemned and beheaded, in order 
to gratify a new passion for Jane Seymour, whom he married 

17 



194 ENGLAND. 

the day after the execution ; and who died soon after giving 
birth to Prince Edward. He next married Anne of Cleves, 
but soon discarded her, because he did not find her so hand- 
some as she had been represented ; and Thomas Cromwell, 
Earl of Essex, his prime minister, having been instrumental 
in bringing about this joyless marriage, lost the favor of his 
sovereign, and suffered death on the scaffold. Catharine 
Howard, whom he next married, was condemned and execu- 
ted for adultery. But Catharine Parr, his 6th wife, had the 
good fortune to survive him. 

17. Henry VIII. left three children, Mary, daughter of 
Catharine of Arragon, Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, 
and Edward, son of Jane Seymour. The last succeeded him, 
with the title of Edward VI., in his 10th year, Edward Sey- 
mour, Duke of Somerset, uncle of the young king, being ap- 
pointed protector ; and after his fall, the Duke of Northum- 
berland was raised to the same office. Edward's short reign 
was distracted by contests between those to whom the direc- 
tion of public affairs was intrusted ; but the Protestant influ- 
ence prevailed in the government, the cause of the Reforma- 
tion was promoted, and the reformed liturgy was modelled 
under the direction of Cranmer ; yet a great part of the peo- 
ple were still attached to the Catholic faith. 

18. Edward, a prince of great hopes and virtues, died in 
his 16th year, deeply lamented. So different was his charac- 
ter from that of his father, that he is said never to have signed 
an order for an execution against any person, without shed- 
ding tears. Just before his death, he had been prevailed 
upon, by the interested influence and intrigues of the Duke 
of Northumberland, the protector, to set aside his sisters, 
Mary and Elizabeth, and bequeath the crown to Jane Grey, 
great-granddaughter of Henry VII , who was married to Lord 
Guilford Dudley, a son of the protector. 

19. Notwithstanding the attempt to alter the succession, 
Mary, who was a bigoted and intolerant Catholic, was ac- 
knowledged the rightful heir, and succeeded to the throne ; 
and the Catholic religion was again restored. Her short 
reign is noted for the cruel persecution of the English Re- 
formers ; and her character is painted by Protestant writers 
in the darkest colors ; but it may be remarked, by way of 
apology for her, that the treatment which both she and her 
mother had received from those who rejected the papal su- 
premacy, was calculated to inflame her prejudices ; that she 



ENGLAND. I95 

was under the influence of evil counsellors ; and that she lived 
in an age when the principles of religious toleration were not 
understood or practised by either Catholics or Protestants. 

20. Immediately after the death of Edward, Jane Grey, who 
had been appointed successor, by the intrigues of her friends, 
was proclaimed queen by her adherents ; but after wearing the 
crown ten days, she resigned it, and would gladly have return- 
ed to private life. The youth and innocence of herself and 
her husband (neither of them exceeding their 17th year) 
pleaded strongly in their favor ; yet they were condemned 
and beheaded ; as also were their principal supporters. 

21. Lady Jane, who is described as a young woman of 
singular virtues and accomplishments, sent, on the day of her 
execution, a message to her husband, who desired to see her, 
Informing him that the tenderness of their last interview would 
be too much for her to bear. " Tell him," added she, " that 
our separation will be only for a moment. We shall soon 
meet each other in a place where our affections shall be for- 
ever united, and where misfortunes will never more disturb 
our eternal felicity." 

22. A cruel persecution was now commenced against the Re- 
formers ; the men who had been most forward in establishing 
the Protestant religion in England, were singled out for pun- 
ishment ; and among the most eminent martyrs who were 
burnt at Smithfield, were Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, 
Ferrar, and Rogers. By the cruelty of these proceedings, 
the feelings of the people were shocked ; the excellent char 
acter of most of the sufferers, and the undaunted spirit 
which they exhibited, produced a strong sensation in their fa- 
vor, and diminished the influence of the church of Rome ; so 
that these barbarities tended to forward, rather than to check 
the progress of the Reformation. 

23. Mary, in the second year after she succeeded to the 
throne, was married to Philip II of Spain, a union unpopular 
with her subjects, and productive of little happiness to herself; 
and in the last year of her reign, the French took Calais, 
which had been in possession of the English 210 years. Soon 
after this event, the queen died, feeling bitter vexation for the 
loss, and for being aware that she was an object of aversion 
to her husband and to a great part of her subjects. She left 
few to lament her, and there was scarcely the semblance of 
sorrow for her death. 

21. The accession of Elizabeth to the throne, was hailed 
by the nation with joyful acclamations. She had a long and 



196 ENGLAND. 

auspicious reign, during which tranquillity was maintained in 
her dominions, while the neighboring nations were convulsed 
with dissensions ; and England rose from the rank of a secon- 
dary kingdom, to a level with the first states of Europe. The 
Protestant religion was again restored and protected ; the 
church of England was established in its present form ; and 
the nation attained a higher state of prosperity than it had 
ever before known, in agriculture, commerce, arts, and liter- 
ature. This reign, which some have considered as the Au- 
gustan age of English literature, was illustrated by the great 
names of Hooker, Bacon, Spenser, and Shakspeare. 

25. A remarkable circumstance in this period of English 
history relates to the repeated and sudden changes with re- 
spect to religion, in accordance with the views of the sover- 
eign and the court. Many who had been Protestants under 
Edward, became persecuting Romanists under Mary ; and 
under Elizabeth, they were again transformed into zealous 
promoters of the Reformation. Religion, it would seem, hung 
so loose upon a great part, that they were equally ready to 
conform to popery or protestantism, as might best suit their 
temporal interests. Of 9,000 beneficed clergymen, the num- 
ber of those who preferred, on the accession of Elizabeth, to 
quit their preferments rather than popery, was less than 200. 

26. Elizabeth is charged with treachery and cruelty in her 
treatment of Mary, Queen of Scots, a woman whose extraor- 
dinary beauty and misfortunes seam, in the minds of many, 
to have thrown a veil over all the defects of her character. 
Mary was great-granddaughter of Henri/ VII., and next heir 
to Elizabeth to the throne of England. She had been educa- 
ted in France as a Catholic, and married, when very young, 
to the dauphin, afterwards Francis II. She had been per- 
suaded, imprudently, to assume the title of queen of England, 
a circumstance which proved fatal to her peace. 

27. On the death of Francis, she returned to Scotland, at 
the age of 18 years. At this period the Reformation, by the 
zealous labors of John Knox, had made great progress in that 
country ; and the people regarded their Catholic queen with 
abhorrence, and looked to her enemy Elizabeth for support. 

28. Mary married, for her second husband, her cousin 
Henry Stuart, Itord Darnley, who soon became disagreeable 
to her, and was not long afterwards murdered ; she then mar- 
ried the Earl of Bothwell, who was stigmatized as the mur- 
derer of Darnley. Her conduct excited against her the whole 
kingdom of Scotland ; and, being deserted by her followers^ 



ENGLAND. ]£7 

she was at length compelled to resign the crown to her infant 
son, who was proclaimed James VI ; and her illegitimate 
brother, the Earl of Murray, a friend to the Reformation, 
was appointed regent during the young king's minority. 

29. Encouraged by the plausible professions of Elizabeth, 
Mary was induced to take refuge in England, appealing to 
the queen as umpire between herself and her subjects. After 
being detained a prisoner 18 years, in Foiheringay Castle, 
she was condemned and beheaded in one of the rooms of her 
prison, in the 45th year of her age. 

30. Elizabeth warmly espoused the cause of the Nether- 
lands, in their revolt against the authority of Philip II. of 
Spain ; and her admiral, Sir Francis Drake, had taken some 
of the Spanish possessions in South America. To avenge 
these offences, and to subjugate the leading Protestant power, 
the Spanish "Invincible Armada" a more formidable fleet 
than Europe had ever before witnessed, was fitted out for the 
invasion of England. 

31. This armament consisted of 150 ships, 3,000 pieces 
of cannon, and 27,000 men. It entered the English channel 
in the form of a crescent, extending its two extremities to the 
distance of seven miles. It was met by the English fleet, 
consisting of 108 ships, commanded by those distinguished 
maritime chiefs, Howard, Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, and 
Raleigh. Being gradually weakened, and finally overtaken 
by a storm, it suffered an entire defeat. Only 50 vessels, 
with 6,000' men, returned to Spain. 

32. The age of Elizabeth was fruitful in men of talents, 
and she was assisted in her government by eminent states- 
men, among whom were Bacon, Burleigh, and Walsingham, 
men wholly devoted to the interests of the nation. But her 
chief personal favorites were unworthy. Of these, in the early 
part of her reign, the principal was Robert Dudley, Earl of 
Leicester : after his death, Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, 
a young nobleman of accomplishments, talents, and high 
spirit, possessed the first place in her affections. The queen 
and Essex had many quarrels and reconciliations ; at last 
he broke into open rebellion, was convicted of treason, and 
beheaded. 

33. Elizabeth, who had surprised the nations of Europe by 
the splendor of her course, was destined to close the evening 
of her life in gloom and sorrow. Some ascribe the deep de- 
pression 3nd mental suffering which she, at this period, en- 
dured, "o the neglect which she imagined she experienced on 

17* 



I9'g ENGLAND. 

account of her age and infirmities, when, to use her own ex- 
pression, " men would turn their backs on the setting, to wor- 
ship the rising sun ;" others to the revival of her regret for 
the death of Essex, whom she had given up for his invincible 
obstinacy, but who, she now discovered, had actually thrown 
himself upon her clemency, while his enemies had found 
means to conceal his application. The countess of Notting- 
ham, now upon her death-bed (according to various histori- 
ans), sent for the queen, to confess to her that Essex, while 
under the sentence of death, had desired her to convey to 
Elizabeth a ring which she had given him, with the assurance 
that the sight of it would at any time recall her tenderness ; 
but that she had neglected to deliver it. The queen, in a 
frenzy of passion, shook the dying countess, exclaiming ; 
"God may forgive you, but I never can." From that mo- 
ment she sunk into a deep melancholy, rejected all suste- 
nance, and died in profound grief, in the 45th year of her 
reign, and the 70th of her age. 

'34. Elizabeth was distinguished for her learning, and spoke 
fluently Greek, Latin, French, and Spanish. She possessed 
extraordinary talents for government, was great as a public 
character, and commanded the high respect of her subjects 
and of foreign nations. Her three leading maxims of policy 
were, to secure the affections of her subjects, to be frugal of 
her treasures, and to excite dissensions among her enemies. 
She manifested less regard for the liberty, than for the pros- 
perity of the people. In the former part of her reign, she was 
comparatively moderate and humble ; but afterwards haughty 
and severe. Both her disposition and her principles were 
despotic. With regard to religion, she persecuted both Cath- 
olics and Puritans ; but, like her father, she had a leaning 
towards Rome in almost every thing except the doctrine of 
papal supremacy. 

35. Her private character is less to be admired, being tar- 
nished with insincerity and cruelty, and destitute of the mild- 
er and softer virtues of her sex. Her manners were haughty 
and overbearing, and her conversation grossly profane. Vain 
of her beauty, which she only could discover ; delighted with 
the praise of her charms, even at the age of 65 ; jealous of 
every female competitor, to a degree which the youngest and 
silliest of her sex might despise ; and subject to sallies of an- 
ger which no sense of dignity could restrain ; she furnishes 
a remarkable instance of great moral weaknesses united with 
high intellect lal superiority. 



ENGLAND. jgg 



SECTION VIII. 

The Stuart Family : — James I. ; Charles I : — The Com- 
monwealth ; Cromwell : — Charles II. ; James II. ; Wil- 
liam and Mary ; Anne. — From A. D. 1603 to 1714. 

1. Elizabeth, on the approach of death, nominated for her 
successor, the son of her rival Mary, James VI. of Scotland, 
who was the rightful heir by descent. He took the title of 
James I. of England ; and in him the two crowns were unit- 
ed. He was the first of the Stuarts, a family whose reign 
was one continued struggle for power between the monarch 
and the people ; and who were characterized by despotic 
principles, injudicious conduct, and such a want of gratitude 
and good faith, as to be proverbial for leaving their friends in 
distress. 

2. James had scarcely arrived in England, when a conspir- 
acy was discovered for subverting the government, and plac- 
ing on the throne his cousin Arabella Stuart. The celebrat- 
ed Sir Walter Raleigh, who had been distinguished in the 
preceding reign, was sentenced to death on an accusation of 
being connected in this plot. He was, however, reprieved, 
cast into prison, and 15 years after his condemnation, was, at 
the instigation of the king, barbarously beheaded. 

3. Another conspiracy followed, of a more daring nature 
This was the famous Gunpowder Plot, a design of some des- 
perate Catholics to blow up the parliament house, and involve 
in one common destruction, the king, lords, and commons. 
Just on the eve of its accomplishment, the plot was discover- 
ed j and Guy Fawkes was taken with matches, for firing the 
magazine, in his pocket. 

4. It was the characteristic weakness of James to attach 
himself to worthless favorites ; such were Carre, Earl of Som- 
erset, and Villiers, Duke of Buckingham ; men on whom he 
bestowed his favors with the utmost prodigality, though they 
were of profligate character, odious to the people, and were 
possessed of no merit, except external beauty and superficial 
accomplishments. 

5. During the reign of Mary, the Puritans first made their 
appearance ; and in the time of Elizabeth they became, in a 
considerable degree, conspicuous. They were strenuous ad- 
vocates for freedom in the state, and a more thorough refor- 
mation in religior. At the accession of James, they cherish- 



200 ENGLAND. 

ed high hopes that their views would meet with more favor, 
than during the reign of the late queen, inasmuch as he had 
been educated in Presbyterianism : but of all persons they 
were the most disappointed. So great was their dissatisfac- 
tion, that some of them sought refuge, from their restraints 
and persecutions, in the wilds of America, and commenced 
the settlement of New England. 

'6. The leading characteristic of James, was his love of ar- 
bitrary power. The divine right of kings to govern their 
subjects without control, was his favorite topic in conversa- 
tion, and in his speeches to parliament. The best part of 
his character was his pacific disposition ; and his reign, which 
lasted 22 years, though ignoble to himself, was, in many re- 
spects, happy to his people, who were enriched by peace and 
commerce. 

7. In his private character, his morals were far from being 
pure. He possessed considerable ingenuity, and a good deal 
of learning, but more pedantry. He blended a childish and 
degrading familiarity so incongruously with a ridiculous van- 
ity, insufferable arrogance, and a vulgar stateliness, that he 
reminds us more of some mock king in a farce, than a real 
one on the theatre of history. He was excessively fond of 
flattery, which was dealt out to him with an unsparing hand 
by his bishops and parasites, who styled him the British Solo- 
mon ; yet in the opinion of less interested observers, he mer- 
ited the appellation given him by the Duke of Sully, that of 
" the wisest fool in Europe." " He was," says bishop Burnet, 
" the scorn of the age, a mere pedant, without true judgment, 
courage, or steadiness, his reign being a continued course of 
mean practices." 

8. The increase of commerce, and consequent influx of 
wealth ; the diffusion of information ; the little respect cher- 
ished for the personal character of the king ; the disappointed 
hopes of the Puritans, the multiplication of their numbers, 
the controversies in which they were engaged, and the priva- 
tions to which they were subjected ; all conspired to diffuse 
widely the spirit of liberty. The current of public opinion 
was now strongly turned to an extension of the rights of the 
people, and to a retrenchment of the power of the sovereign ; 
and during this reign the seeds were sown of that spirit of 
resistance to despotic power, on the part of the people, which, 
in the next, produced *a subversion of the monarchy. 

9. Charles I. ascended the throne in his 25th year, under 
favoi zble circumstances : his title was undisputed, and th« 



ENGLAND. 2Q| 

kingdom was in a flourishing condition. But within the last 
fifty yeais, public opinion in the nation had undergone a 
great change, and many of his subjects Avere extremely jealous 
of their civil and religious liberties, and would no longer be 
governed by precedents which had their origin in times of 
ignorance and slavery. He soon gave proof that he inherited 
<he same arbitrary principles with his father, and the same 
worthless favorite, Buckingham, retained his influence and 
authority. — He married Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry 
IV. of France, who was a zealous papist, and whose influence 
over the king, is regarded as one of the principal causes of 
kis calamities. 

10. In the latter part of the reign of James, Charles, ac- 
companied by Buckingham, had visited the court of Madrid, 
in order to solicit the hand of the Infanta in marriage. The 
negotiation, however, failed- through the misconduct of Buck- 
ingham, and England was involved in a war with Spain. 
Soon after Charles ascended the throne, he was offended with 
the parliament for refusing to grant him sufficient supplies in 
carrying on this war, and for resisting his arbitrary designs ; 
and having adopted the resolution to rule without their aid, 
he proceeded to levy money, in various ways, independent of 
their authority. 

11. One of these methods was by a tax on merchandise, 
called tonnage and poundage, and another by a tax called 
ship-rnoney. The money raised by the latter, was now levied 
not only on seaport towns, but over the whole kingdom, and 
Charles claimed the right to command his subjects, without an 
act of parliament, to provide and furnish ships, together with 
men, victuals, and ammunition, in such numbers, and at what- 
ever time he should think proper — a claim which struck at 
the vital principle of a free government. This assessment of 
ship-money is the famous tax which first roused the whole 
nation,, at length, to fix and determine, after a long continu- 
ance of an unsettled constitution, the bounds of their own 
freedom, and the king's prerogative. 

12. A noble stand was made against the payment of this 
imposition by John Hampden, a man who, on account of his 
high character for talents, integrity, and patriotism, possessed 
the greatest influence in parliament, and in the nation. But, 
although the venal judges decided the cause against him, yet 
he obtained the end for which he sacrificed his quiet and his 
safety : the people, believing that the decision was unjust, were 
roused from their lethargy, and became fully sensible of th.^ 
danger to which their liberties were exposed, 



£02 ENGLAND. 

13. The Duke of Buckingham having been assassinated by 
Felton, an Irish fanatic, the Earl of Strafford, the most able 
and devoted champion of the claims of the crown, and the 
most formidable enemy of the liberties of the people, became 
the chief counsellor of the king, and Archbishop Laud had 
the principal influence m ecclesiastical affairs. The current 
of the public sentiment was now running strongly towards 
Puritanism, in favor of a simpler form of worship. But Laud, 
so far from countenancing this tendency, had overloaded the 
church with new ceremonies, which were disgusting to the 
people, and which he enforced with the most intolerant zeal. 

14. Not satisfied with attempting to enforce conformity in 
England, the king undertook to establish episcopacy in Scot- 
land also ; and to impose the use of the English liturgy upon 
the national church. This measure excited a strong sensa- 
tion among all ranks, from the peer to the peasant : even the 
women were not backward in manifesting opposition. In 
one of the churches of Edinburgh, on the day when the in- 
troduction of the liturgy was first attempted, no sooner had 
the service begun, than an old woman, impelled by sudden 
indignation, started up, and exclaiming aloud against the 
supposed mass, threw the stool, on which she had been sitting, 
at the preacher's head. The assembly was instantly in con- 
fusion, nor could the minister finish the service. The people 
lirom without burst open the doors, broke the windows, and 
rent the air with exclamations of " A pope, an antichrist ; 
stone him, stone him." 

15. The prelates were equally unsuccessful, in most in- 
stances, throughout Scotland, in enforcing the liturgy. The 
National Covenant, which was first framed at the Reforma- 
tion, and which renounced episcopacy as well as popery, was 
renewed, and subscribed by all ranks ; and afterwards a new 
bond, of similar purport, but still more determined and hostile 
in its spirit, styled the Solemn League and Covenant, was 
formed and signed by many in England as well as in Scot- 
land, who combined together for their mutual defence. 

16. After eleven years' intermission, the king found it 
necessary, in 1640, to convoke a parliament ; but the house 
of commons, instead of listening to his demands for supplies, 
began with presenting the public grievances, under three 
heads — those of the broken privileges of parliament, of illegal 
taxes, and of violence done to the cause of religion. Charles, 
perceiving he had nothing favorable to hope from their delib- 
erTtionSy soon dissolved the assembly. By another parlia- 



ENGLAND. 203 

ment, which was not long afterwards assembled Strafford 
and Laud were sent to the Tower on several charges of en- 
deavoring to subvert the constitution, and to introduce arbi- 
trary power. Strafford was brought to trial on a charge of 
treason, and was condemned and beheaded ; and five years 
afterwards, Laud suffered the same fate. 

17. Charles had, in 1629, violated the privileges of parlia- 
ment, by causing nine members to be imprisoned for the part 
which they had taken in debate ; but he was now betrayed 
into a still greater indiscretion, which contributed much to- 
wards kindling the flame of civil war. This was the im- 
peachment of Lord Kimbolton, and five distinguished, com- 
moners, Pym, Hampden, Hollis, Hazlerig, and Strode; and 
his going himself to the house to seize them, leaving 200 
armed men at the door. Having entered the house, he or- 
dered the speaker, Lenthal, to point them out. " Sir," an- 
swered the speaker, falling on his knees, " I have neither 
eyes to see, nor tongue to speak in this place, but as the house 
is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am ; and I humbly 
ask pardon that I cannot give any other answer to what your 
majesty is pleased to demand of me." 

18. The king withdrew without effecting his object, amidst 
low but distinct murmurs of " Privilege, privilege." This ill- 
advised and abortive attempt, which was condemned both by 
his friends and enemies, completed the degradation of the 
unfortunate monarch. He afterwards apologized to parlia- 
ment for this conduct, but the day of reconciliation was past ; 
he had lost the confidence of that body, and they were now 
prepared not only to confine his power within legal bounds, 
but to strip him of his constitutional authority. 

19. Both parties resolved to stake the issue of the contest 
on the sword ; and the standard of civil war was now [1642] 
erected. The cause of the king was supported by three 
fourths of the nobility and superior gentry, by the bishops 
and advocates of episcopacy, and by the Catholics ; that of 
the parliament by the yeomanry of the country, the merchants 
and tradesmen in the towns, by the Puritans, or opponents of 
episcopacy, comprising the Presbyterians, Independents, and 
other dissenters. The supporters of the king were styled 
Cavaliers ; those of the parliament, Roundheads, an appella- 
tion given to them by their adversaries, because they cropped 
thsir hair short. 

20. A religious spirit, unfortunately tinctured with fanat- 
icism extravagance, and party feeling, was at this period 



204 ENGLAND. 

widely diffused throughout Great Britain, and it formed a 
prominent characteristic of most of the leaders in parliament 
and also of those who took up arms in defence of their liber- 
ties. The charge of license and excess fell chiefly on the 
royalists, a great part of whom were men of pleasure, dispos- 
ed to deride the sanctity and austere morality of their oppo- 
nents. " All the sober men that I was acquainted with, who 
were against the parliament," says the celebrated Richard 
Baxter, " used to say, ' The king had the better cause, but 
the parliament had the better men.' " 

21. England had been, comparatively, but little engaged ia 
war since the accession of Henry VII., and it had but few 
men of military experience. The chief commanders in the 
royal army, besides the king, were the Earl of Lindsey, 
Prince Rupert, and Sir Jacob Astley ; and in the parlia- 
mentary army, the Earl of Essex had the chief command at 
first, then Lord Fairfax, and afterwards Oliver Cromwell. 
In the early part of the contest, each side lost one of their 
greatest and best men ; Hampden on the part of the parlia- 
ment, and Lord Falkland on that of the king. In the battles 
of Edgeliill and Newbury, the royalists had the advantage ; 
but in those of Marston Moor and Naseby, they were entirely 
defeated. 

22. After the war had raged nearly five years, the king 
fell into the hands of his enemies, who held him for some 
time a prisoner. At length, a minority of the house of com- 
mons, after having expelled their colleagues, being under the 
influence of the parliamentary army, instituted a high court of 
justice, composed of 133 members, for trying him on a charge 
of treason. The king, having been arraigned before this tribu- 
nal, received the sentence " that the court, being satisfied that 
Charles Stuart is guilty of the crimes of which he has been 
charged, do adjudge him, as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and 
public enemy to the good people of the nation, to be put to 
death, by severing his head from his body." 

23. Charles was now no longer the man he had been be- 
fore the civil war. Affliction had chastened his mind ; he 
had sought and found strength and relief in the consolations 
of religion ; and his conduct during his trial exalted his char- 
acter, even in the estimation of his enemies. He denied the 
authority of the court, but declared that he forgave those who 
were the cause of his death, and submitted to his fate with 
fortitude and composure. Having laid his head on the block, 
one of the masked executioners severed it from his body at a 






ENGLAND. 205 

blow ; the other, holding it up, exclaimed, " Behold the head 
of a traitor ;" while the sobs and lamentations of the specta- 
tors were mingled with the acclamations of the soldiery. 

24. Such was the end of Charles I., an awful lesson to kings 
to watch the growth of public opinion, and to moderate their 
pretensions in conformity with the reasonable desires of their 
subjects. His execution, however, was contrary to the general 
feelings of the nation ; but was the deed of comparatively a 
few men actuated by ambition or the madness of the times. 
Even of the commissioners appointed to sit in judgment on 
him, only about half could be induced to attend his trial. But 
the manner of his death has tended to exalt his posthumous 
reputation ; for while it has moderated the reproaches of his 
adversaries, it has enhanced the encomiums of his advocates, 
who have styled him " the royal martyr," and in sympathy for 
his sufferings and resentment against the regicides, have been 
disposed to overlook his misdeeds which brought him to the 
scaffold. 

25. It was the misfortune of Charles to inherit despotic 
principles from his ancestors, to be educated in a servile and 
profligate court, and to be surrounded by wretched counsel- 
lors. He was one of the last men to learn the imoortant 
lesson, which princes in all ages have been slow to learn, that 
the influence of authority must ultimately bend to the influ- 
ence of opinion. But his greatest defect, as well as the prin- 
cipal cause of his ruin, was the system of duplicity and insin- 
cerity upon which he acted in his public character. Such 
was his want of fidelity in his engagements, that the parlia- 
ment could never confide in his promises. 

26. But weak and reprehensible as he was as a king, he 
was by no means destitute of abilities. He was possessed 
of considerable learning and good talents as a speaker and 
writer ; and his private character was exemplary. In his 
manners he is represented as cold, stiff, and formal, preserv- 
ing a state and reserve, which were calculated to alienate 
those who approached him. With respect to religion, he 
was, says Bishop Burnet, " much inclined to a middle way 
between Protestants and Papists." 

27. The proceedings of Charles were at direct variance 
with every principle of civil and religious liberty ; and had 
they been acquiesced in on the part of the people, England 
might now have been a despotism. Mr. Hume, the great 
apologist for the Stuart family, acknowledges the services of 
the Puritans ; "by whom alone," according to him, " the 

18 ' 



206 ENGLAND. 

precious spark of liberty had been kindled, and was preserv- 
ed ; and to whom the English owe the whole freedom of their 
constitution." 

28. The intentions of those who first resisted the despotic 
and intolerant measures of the king and his court, were doubt- 
less upright and patriotic ; and their exertions to secure the 
rights of the nation, which had been wantonly violated, en- 
title them to the gratitude of posterity. Yet it must be ac- 
knowledged that those who opposed the intolerance of t;he 
king and of Laud, had themselves no consistent principles of 
religious liberty. In the progress of the contest, party spirit 
and fanaticism were called into powerful operation, and the 
leaders of the popular party, in many cases, acted on the 
principle that the end sanctifies the means, and appeared to 
think themselves absolved from all obligations of honor and 
honesty. Right and justice were outraged by those who pro- 
fessed to have drawn the sword in their defence. But such 
inconsistency is characteristic of revolutions. 

29. The death of the king was soon followed by the aboli- 
tion both of the monarchy and the house of lords, by the com- 
mons ; and a republican government was established. It was 
publicly proclaimed, that the supreme authority of the nation 
resided in the representatives of the people ; and that it should 
be accounted treason to give any person the title of king with- 
out the authority of parliament. 

30. After the execution of Laud, Episcopacy had been 
abolished, and Presbyterianism substituted in its stead. But 
the Presbyterian interest soon began to decline, and the Inde- 
pendents gained the ascendency ; and the power which the 
parliament had wrested from the king, was at length, by the 
management of Cromwell, transferred to the army. Before 
the trial of Charles, measures had been taken to exclude the 
Presbyterians from parliament, and that part of the house 
which remained, distinguished by the ridiculous name of the 
Rump, was composed of Independents under the influence of 
Cromwell. In this manner the Presbyterians, who had over- 
turned the church and the throne, fell victims to the military 
power which they had used as the instrument for accomplish- 
ing their designs. 

31. The parliament of Scotland took no part in the trial 
of the king, and after his death they proclaimed Charles II. 
their sovereign, on condition of his signing the Covenant. 
Cromwell, at the head of 16,000 men, marched into Scot- 



ENGLAND. 207 

land, and defeated the royalist Covenanters in the battle of 
Dunbar. The royal army, retreating into England, was pur- 
sued by Cromwell, and in the desperate battle of Worcester, 
almost the whole of the troops were killed or taken pris- 
oners ; and the victorious commander returned in triumph to 
London. 

32. Young Charles escaped with difficulty. He assumed 
the disguise of a peasant, journeying in the least frequented 
roads, travelling only in the night, and passing the day in ob- 
scure cottages, where he was unknown, and where his food 
was generally a little coarse bread and milk. On one occa- 
sion, he sought safety by concealing himself, for a day, in the 
top of a large oak : in that precarious situation, he saw and 
heard his pursuers, as they passed by, talking of him, and ex- 
pressing a wish that they might discover the place of his con- 
cealment. After two months of romantic adventure, he found 
an opportunity of escaping to France. 

33. The republican parliament passed the famous Naviga- 
tion Act, which, by prohibiting the importation of all foreign 
merchandise, except in English bottoms, or in those of the 
country producing the commodities, has proved the source of 
the naval superiority of Great Britain. This act was the cause 
of a war between England and Holland, which terminated in 
favor of the former, and in which the celebrated admiral Blake 
distinguished himself, and had for his antagonists the great 
Dutch maritime chiefs, Van Tromp and De Ruyter. 

34. The parliament, which had been in session twelve 
years, and known by the name of the Long Parliament, had 
lost the confidence of the people. It had been subservient to 
the views of Cromwell ; but having at length become jealous 
of him, it formed the design of reducing the army, intending, 
by that means, to diminish his power. Cromwell, perceiving 
their object, and being secure of the attachment of the army, 
resolved on seizing the sovereign power. While sitting in a 
council of officers, on being informed of an unfavorable reply 
of parliament to a petition, which they had presented, he rose 
up on a sudden, with an appearance of fury, and turning to 
major-general Vernon, cried out, that he was compelled to do 
a thing which made the very hairs of his head stand on end. 

35. Taking with him 300 soldiers to the door, he speedily 
entered the house with marks of violent indignation in his 
countenance ; and after listening awhile to the debates, he 
started up, and began to load the parliament with reproaches. 
T^en, stamping upon the floor, he gave a signal for his soldiers 



208 ENGLAND. 

to enter ; and addressing himself to the members, " For shame ?* 
said he ; " get you gone ; give place to honester men. I tel* 
you, you are no longer a parliament ; the Lord has done witi* 
you !" Having turned out all the members, he ordered the 
doors to be locked. 

36. In this manner Cromwell seized the reins of govern- 
ment ; but he was willing to give his subjects a parliament, 
not, indeed, elected in the usual form, but modelled on prin- 
ciples entirely new. The ministers took the sense of the 
" Congregational churches " in the several counties, and re- 
turns were made containing the names of such persons as 
were deemed qualified for this high trust. Out of these, the 
council, in the presence of Cromwell, selected 163 represent- 
atives, to each of whom a writ of summons was sent, requiring 
his attendance ; and on the appointed day, 120 of them pre- 
sented themselves in the council chamber at Whitehall. This 
body, composed of men who were deeply imbued with the 
fanaticism of the times, is known by the name of the Little 
Parliament, and is also often called JBarebone's Parliament, 
from a leading member, a leather-dresser, whose name, given 
according to the taste of the age, was Praise-God Barebone. 

37. The little parliament assembled on the 4th of July, 
1653, and was dissolved in the following December. At the 
time of its dissolution, a new constitution was published, and 
Cromwell assumed the office of Protector, having now obtain- 
ed the great object of his ambition, the station and authority, 
though not the title of king. He was assisted bv a council 
of 21 members, and instead of the title of majesty, he receivea 
that of highness. He afterwards aspired to the title of king, 
which was at length tendered to him, yet under such circum- 
stances of opposition and danger, that he thought proper to 
decline it. 

38. The government which he had usurped, he adminis- 
tered with unrivalled energy and ability, and he was the most 
able and powerful potentate of his time in Europe. Abroad^ 
his fleets and armies were victorious, and the island of Ja- 
maica and the strong town of Dunkirk were taken from the 
Spanish : at home, he defeated and punished the conspiracies 
formed against him ; granted religious toleration ; caused jus- 
tice to be ab ] y and impartially administered by upright and 
learned judges ; made himself to be respected and dreaded by 
the neighboring nations, and his friendship to be sought by 
every foreign power ; and the splendor of his character and 
exploits rendered the short period of the protectorate one of 



ENGLAND. 209 

the most brilliant in English history ; nor were the rights of 
England, under the reign of any other sovereign, more#respect- 
ed abroad. But, notwithstanding all his efforts, his enemies 
were numerous among both the royalists and republicans ; and 
he lived in constant fear of assassination. 

39. Cromwell was one of the greatest and most extraordi- 
nary men that England has produced ; and till the rise of 
Bonaparte, his name was without a parallel in modern Europe. 
Men were accustomed to look with a feeling of awe upon the 
individual who, without the aid of birth, wealth, or connec- 
tions, was able, by the force of his talents, to seize the gov- 
ernment of three powerful kingdoms, and impose the yoke of 
servitude upon the necks of the very men who had fought in 
his company, to emancipate themselves from the arbitrary 
sway of their hereditary sovereign. 

40. He owed his elevation to his influence with the army, 
and the character of that body and that of their leader were, 
in a great measure, mutually formed by each other. The 
officers and soldiers made high professions of religion ; reli- 
gious exercises were of as frequent occurrence as those of mil- 
itary duty ; the generals opened their proceedings in council 
by prayer ; and among them Cromwell was preeminent in 
spiritual gifts, and was regarded by them as the favorite of 
heaven. While eagerly toiling up the ascent to greatness, he 
labored to make it appear that he was involuntarily borne for- 
ward by a resistless force, by the wishes of the army, by the 
necessities of the state, and by the will of Providence ; and in 
assuming authority, he yielded, with feigned reluctance, to the 
advice which he had himself suggested. 

41. The name of Cromwell has been subjected to the al- 
most universal charge of unbounded ambition and deep hypoc- 
risy ; and there is scarcely to be met with, in the annals of 
the world, another man alike conspicuous, and possessed of 
equal merit in his public and private character, who has met 
less favor from history. This is, indeed, a natural result, as 
his course, which was alike hostile to legitimate monarchy 
and republican liberty, rendered him equally odious to the 
two leading parties of the times, the advocates of the privi- 
leges of the people, and those of the prerogative of the king , 
and it may also be remarked, that by his high professions of 
religion, he made himself liable to the severest judgment. 
His desertion from the cause of liberty, and his baseness in 
subverting the freedom of his country, proved fatal, at once, 
to his happiness and his fame. 

IS* 



210 ENGLAND. 

42. Cromwell, in private life, in the several relations of a 
husband, a father, a neighbor, and a friend, was exemplary. 
From his early days to the close of his career, religion, or re- 
ligious enthusiasm, formed a distinguished trait in his charac- 
ter ; and it fi pquently manifested itself in the senate and in 
the field, and also in his domestic retirement. Some writers 
have maintained that he was a dissembler in religion as well 
as in politics ; and that, for interested purposes, he conde- 
scended to act the part of a character which he despised. 
" But this supposition," as Dr. Lingard justly observes, " is 
contradicted by the uniform tenor of his life." 

43. Richard Cromwell, after the death of his father, was 
proclaimed Protector ; but the contrast between the father 
and son was wonderful. Richard was neither a statesman 
nor a soldier, had no experience in public business, and pos- 
sessed feeble talents, and little ambition ; and after a few 
months, he resigned the office, and retired to private life. A 
state of anarchy succeeded, when General Monk (afterwards 
Duke of Albemarle), the military commander in Scotland, 
marched his army into England, and crushed the contending 
factions. A parliament was assembled, and on the 29th of 
May, 1660, Charles II, now 80 years of age, was restored to 
the throne of his father. 

44. The nation, indiscreetly trusting to the general profes- 
sions of Charles II, suffered him to assume the crown with- 
out imposing on him any conditions ; and hisjreign, and that 
of James II, exhibit a disgusting repetition of struggles, sim- 
ilar to those which had occurred under the two first princes 
of the house of Stuart. The first impressions with regard to 
the new king were favorable : his manners were easy and 
familiar, but his habits were indolent ; and experience soon 
proved his character to be profligate and worthless. 

45. The change in the public sentiment, observable at this 
period, is not a little remarkable. The same people, who, but 
a few years before, were so jealous of liberty, and exclaimed 
so loudly against monarchical government, are now exhibited 
as soliciting, with eagerness, the shackles of arbitrary power. 
A number of the regicides were condemned and executed ; 
and the bodies of Cromwell, Bradshaw, and Ireton, were dug 
up from their graves, and hanged upon the gallows, to gratify 
the vindictive spirit of the king and the cavaliers. High- 
church or Tory principles, and the slavish doctrines of passive 



ENGLAND. 211 

obedience and non-resistance, now came in vogue. An act 
of uniformity in religion was passed, by which about 2,000 
Presbyterian ministers were deprived of their livings; and 
another attempt was made to establish episcopacy in Scotland. 

46. The prodigality of Charles kept him always in want. 
Dunkirk, which had been acquired by Cromwell, he sold to 
the French for .£400,000, which he soon squandered upon 
his pleasures. He entered into hostilities with the Dutch, 
which were carried on, for some time, with spirit. While 
this war was raging, London was visited by a tremendous 
plague, which carried off about 90,000 inhabitants ; and was 
followed, the next year, by a fire, by which 13,200 houses, 
comprising about two thirds of the metropolis, were reduced 
to ashes. 

47. In consequence of the unsuccessful issue of the war 
(which was terminated by the peace of Breda), and of the 
sale of Dunkirk, the government became unpopular, and Lord 
Clarendon, on whom the odium was chiefly cast, was banish- 
ed, and passed the remainder of his life in France. After 
the fall of Clarendon, the government became more unprin- 
cipled ; and the five ministers, by whom it was conducted, 
have been stigmatized by the term of Cabal, so called from 
the initial letters of their names. 

48. The Duke of York, (afterwards James II) who had 
now the chief influence at court, was an avowed Catholic : 
Charles, so far as he had any sense of religion, was a con- 
cealed one, and had the baseness to receive from Louis XIV. 
of France a pension of £200,000 a year, for the purpose of 
establishing popery and despotic power in England. A gen- 
eial consternation for the safety of the Protestant religion and 
of public liberty prevailed ; and the latter part of Charles's 
reign exhibits an uninterrupted series of attacks upon the 
lives, liberty, and property of his subjects ; and a disgust- 
ing scene of party intrigues, and of plots and conspiracies ; 
yet it was at this period that parliament passed the Habeas 
Corpus act, a most important security to the subject against 
personal oppression. 

49. A pretended Popish Plot, disclosed by the infamous 
Titus Oates, occasioned an unjust execution of Lord Staf- 
ford, and some other Catholics. Another pretended conspi- 
racy, in favor of reform, was called the Rye-House Plot ; in 
which those eminent patriots, Lord Russell and Algernon 
Sydney, were accused of being concerned; and on testimony, 
supposed to be perjured, were condemned and beheaded. 



212 ENGLAND. 

50. The character of the court, as well as that of the king, 
was notorious for its profligacy ; and it had a most unhappy 
influence upon the nation. A general dissoluteness of man- 
ners characterized the reign. All appearance of devotion, 
and all regularity of morals, were regarded as puritanical, and 
exploded as unfashionable. Charles II. was a man of wit 
and good humor, and possessed such talents as enabled him 
to shine among his gay and profligate companions ; but he 
had no qualities, as a man or a king, that entitle him to the 
respect or gratitude of posterity. 

51. James II, who succeeded his brother Charles, was in- 
ferior to him in talents, but much more devoted to business : 
like his predecessors of the Stuart family, he was arbitrary 
and impolitic ; and his short and inglorious reign was wholly 
employed in attempts to establish the Catholic religion and 
despotic power. On assuming the government, he expressed 
his contempt for the authority of parliament, and his determi- 
nation to exercise an unlimited despotism. He made Romish 
priests and Jesuits his chief counsellors ; and though the 
Catholics, at this time, composed but a very small proportion 
of the people of England, yet he undertook the desperate at- 
tempt to set aside the Protestant religion, and, instead of it, 
to establish the popish faith. 

52. The Duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., 
who, during the preceding reign, had defeated the Scottish 
Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge, having now excited a rebel- 
lion, with a view to seize the crown, was defeated, taken pris- 
oner, and beheaded. The most inhuman rigor was exercised 
against those who favored him. The atrocious chief justice 
Jeffreys, the most noted as a profligate judge in English his- 
tory, exercised the most unrelenting cruelty. He gloried in 
his barbarity, and boasted that he had hanged more men than 
any other judge since the time of William the Conqueror ; and 
his bloody career was styled by James, with unfeeling jocu- 
larity, " Jeffreys' campaign." 

53. The efforts of James, in favor of popery, were, for a 
considerable time, attended with success. But having caused 
seven bishops to be committed to the Tower for refusing to 
read a Declaration to suspend the laws against popery, the 
passive spirit of the nation disappeared, and a general indig- 
nation was roused. William, Prince of Orange, who had 
married Mary, the eldest daughter of James, was invited 
over, and landed at Torbay, with an army, in order to assume 
the government. 



ENGLAND. 213 

54. The principal nobility and officers immediately joined 
his standard, and James, being deserted by the people, and 
even by his own children, escaped to France, where he passed 
the remainder of his life. A Convention-Parliament declared 
the king's flight an abdication, and settled the crown upon 
William and Mary. This event is styled by British writers 
the glorious revolution of 168S. 

55. The British constitution now became fixed and deter- 
mined. The Protestant succession was secured : religious 
toleration granted ; and Presbyterianism reestablished in 
Scotland. A declaration was made, fixing the rights of the 
subject, and the prerogative of the king. Some of the most 
important articles are the following : — 1. The king cannot 
suspend the laws or their execution : 2. He cannot levy 
money without the consent of parliament : 3. The subjects 
have a right to petition the crown : 4. A standing army can- 
not be kept in time of peace but with the consent of parlia- 
ment : 5. Elections and parliamentary debates must be free, 
and parliaments must be frequently assembled. 

56. Archbishop Saner oft, seven other bishops, and a con- 
siderable number of the clergy, who held the doctrines of 
passive obedience and the divine right of kings and bishops, 
looking upon James as still their lawful king, refused to take 
the oath of allegiance to William, and were deprived of their 
stations. From this circumstance they were styled Non- 
jurors, High-Churchmen, and Jacobites. 

57. Ireland still adhered to James, and the parliament of 
that country declared William an usurper. Being assisted by 
Louis XIV. of Fiance, James landed with some French 
forces in Ireland, where he was joined by a large army ; but he 
was defeated by William at the river Boyne, and the country 
submitted to the new king. A large fleet, which Louis XIV. 
had prepared in favor of James, was destroyed by admiral 
Russell, off Cape la Hogue ; and by the peace of Ryswick, 
which followed, the title of William to the crown was ac- 
knowledged. 

5S. William was a man of feeble constitution, but of dis-r 
tinguished talents, especially in war, to which his taste strongly 
inclined him ; and he was esteemed one of the greatest com- 
manders of his age. Though he was exemplary in his private 
character, yet he was rather fitted to command respect than 
affection, as he excelled more in the severer than in the mild- 
er virtues, being wholly deyoted to business, and his manners 



gl4 ENGLAND. 

being cold, grave, and reserved ; and he was less popular 
with his subjects than some other sovereigns of far less merit. 
Mary, his queen, and partner of the throne, who died seven 
years before him, was a woman distinguished for her virtues. 

59. On the death of William, the crown devolved upon 
Anne, the second daughter of James II., who was married to 
George, prince of Denmark. She was not possessed of supe 
rior talents, but was respected for her virtues, and styled the 
" Good Queen Anne." Her reign was distinguished not only 
for military achievements, but also for eminent attainments 
in philosophy and literature ; and is sometimes styled the Au- 
gustan Age of England. 

60. In the first year of this reign, Great Britain, Germany, 
and Holland, in alliance with each other, declared war against 
France. The Duke of Marlborough, one of the greatest com- 
manders of modern times, was appointed generalissimo of the 
allied army ; and the imperial general was the celebrated 
Prince Eugene. In this great contest the Allies had greatly 
the advantage, effectually checked the ambition and encroach- 
ments of Louis XIV., and gained the splendid victories of 
Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaguet. The war 
was terminated by the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. 

61. An important event of this reign was the constitutional 
union between England and Scotland, which put a final period 
to the contests which had harassed both countries, and includ- 
ed them under one common title of Great Britain. 

62. The party names of Whigs and Tories, which are still 
used to designate parties in England, first became common in 
the reign of Charles II. The Whigs were advocates for the 
rights of the people ; the Tories favored those of the crown. 
The accession of William and Mary was advocated chiefly by 
the Whigs. During the reign of Anne, parties ran high ; the 
nation was thrown into a ferment by the preaching of Dr. 
Sacheverell, who inculcated the Tory principle of passive obe- 
dience ; and towards the close of the reign, the Tories sup- 
planted the Whigs in the queen's favor, and came into power. 



ENGLAND. g^ 



SECTION IX. 

House of Brunswick : — George I ; George II. ; Gtorge 
III ; George IV.— From A. D. 1714. 

1. On the death of queen Anne, George I, elector of Han- 
over, succeeded to the crown, in the 55th year of his age. 
Before he ascended the throne, he had acquired the reputation 
of an able politician, an experienced general, and a benevolent 
prince. He was plain in his manners ; was a man of great 
application to business ; and his reign was pacific and pros- 
perous. Some faults in his government were attributed to a 
venal ministry, and to his too great attachment to the subjects 
whom he had left. 

2. The two parties which had long divided the kingdom, 
now, for a time, changed their titles, the Whigs being styled 
Hanoverians, and the Tories Jacobites. The former, being 
strenuous advocates for the accession of George, received in 
return from him favor and support, and were restored to pow- 
er. This circumstance alienated and enraged the Tories to 
such a degree, that many of them took part with the Preten- 
der, son of James II., who was proclaimed king in Scotland, 
and made an effort to obtain the crown ; but the rebellion was 
suppressed, and the leaders executed. 

3. A pacific reign, like that of George I., furnishes few 
events of importance in history. One, however, of disastrous 
consequences occurred, called the South Sea Scheme, a base 
imposture, by which it was proposed + ~ ^'^msh the burden 
of the national debt by lowering the in* erest. It gave a great 
shock to public credit, and involved thousands in ruin. 

4. George II, who succeeded his fa her in the 44th year 
of his age, was an able general, of great personal courage, but 
was too fond of war, and delighted in ilitary parade. His 
temper was violent, his talents respectat •, though little culti- 
vated by education ; and his internal adi nnistration generally 
equitable and popular. His partialities i favor of his conti- 
nental dominions are represented as sti-i stronger than those 
of his father, and he has been censure* for involving Great 
Britain in expensive wars on account of the interests of the 
electorate of Hanover. 

5. The most prominent person in the aaministration, during 
a considerable portion of the reign of George I., aad dun ag 



216 ENGLAND. 

the former part of that of George II., was Sir Robert Walpok, 
a man whose policy was pacific, and who was distinguished 
for his talents, and not less so for the system of corruption and 
venality which he practised while in office. 

6. The military operations of this reign were extensive and 
numerous ; and the British arms were, for the most part, 
triumphant. Charles VI., emperor of Germany, who died in 
1740, was succeeded in his dominions by his daughter, the 
celebrated Maria Theresa, who was married to Francis of 
Lorraine. But Charles, the elector of Bavaria, asserted his 
claim to the throne, and, by the aid of Louis XV., was elected 
emperor. 

7. This gave rise to a war, which involved the principal 
states of Europe, called the war of the Austrian succession ; 
during which the Allies, under George II, defeated the 
French in the battle of Detiingen; and the French, under 
Marshal Saxe, routed the Allies at Fontenoy. Great Britain 
was the principal support of Maria Theresa, and by the peace 
of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, her claim to the throne was 
confirmed. 

8. While George II. was absent on the continent, at the 
head of the British army, Charles Edward, the young Pre- 
tender, assisted by Louis XV. of France, made an effort to 
recover the throne of his ancestors. Having landed in Scot- 
land, he put himself at the head of an army, and defeated the 
royal forces in the battles of Preston-Fans and Falkirk ; but 
was afterwards entirely defeated by the Duke of Cumberland, 
in the decisive battle of Culloden. This was the last battle 
that has been fought on the soil of Great Britain, and it ter- 
minated the last effort of the Stuart family to reascend the 
throne, which had been forfeited by the most egregious folly, 
and the most flagitious attempts. 

9. In the latter part of this reign, the war between Great 
Britain and Fiance was renewed, and in its progress the 
British took Louisburg, Fortdu Quesne, Ticonderoga, Crown 
Point, Niagara, and finally, under the command of general 
Wolfe, they gained possession of the city of Quebec, These 
successes were followed by the surrender of all Canada on 
the part of \he French. During these operations in America, 
the British also made extensive conquests in India. 

10. George II. was succeeded by his grandson, George 
III, who was the first king of the house of Brunswick that 
was born 7n England. He commenced his reign at an aus- 



ENGLAND. 217 

picious period, when the arms of Great Britain were trium- 
phant, and the administration able and popular. The war 
with France was, not long afterwards, brought to a close ; 
and by the peace of Paris, Canada, and other territories in 
North America, were confirmed to England. 

11. William Pitt (afterwards Lord Chatham) was at 
the head of the administration during the last years of the 
preceding reign ; and in the former part of this, he was the 
most prominent public man in the nation. At this period, 
oppressive measures were adopted by the British government 
with regard to the American Colonies. These Chatham op- 
posed with his powerful eloquence : but they were persisted 
in ; hostilities were commenced ; a declaration of the inde- 
pendence of the United States was made, and their indepen- 
dence was finally acknowledged by Great Britain. [See Unit- 
ed States.] 

12. The other most important events in the history of Eng- 
land, during this reign, are the extension of the British do- 
minions in India, the Irish rebellion, and the union between 
that country and Great Britain, and the various operations 
of the unexampled war which grew out of the French Revo- 
lution. [See France.] 

13. In 1789, the French revolution broke out, convulsing 
all Europe ; and it was thought to threaten the overthrow of 
all established governments. The government of Great Brit- 
ain, alarmed respecting its own safety, embarked zealously 
in the European war, with a view to check the dissemination 
of democratic principles both at home and abroad. 

14. The system of operations was devised and manag- 
ed under the direction of William Pitt, the son of Lord 
Chatham, who was now at the head of the administration. 
This calamitous war continued to convulse the continent for 
25 years, and during a part of the time Great Britain alone 
had all Europe arrayed against her. But after various fluc- 
tuations of failure and success, she came off victorious, yet 
not without an immense loss of the blood of her subjects, and 
a vast increase of her national debt. Some of the principal 
victories, which the British obtained during this war, were 
those of the Nile and of Trafalgar, by Nelson ; and those of 
Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo, by Wellington. 

15. The reign of George III., who died in 1820, was longer 
than that of any other English monarch ; and it forms a dis- 
tinguished period in the history of the kingdom, on account 
of its military events, and the progress of the nation in com- 

19 



218 ENGLAND. 

merce, wealth, and the arts. Daring the last ten years of his 
life, he was afflicted with insanity to such a degree, as entire- 
ly disqualified him for all business, and the Prince of Wales 
acted as Regent. His talents were not brilliant, nor were 
his views, as a statesman, enlarged ; but his private character 
was amiable and exemplary, and he was much respected and 
beloved by his subjects. 

16. George III. was succeeded, in 1820, by his son, 
George IV., who was a man of talents and accomplishments, 
but whose life, during both his youth and his manhood, had 
been marked by great prodigality and dissipation. While a 
prince, and not in power, he connected himself with the 
opposition, or Whigs ; but both as regent and king, he ad- 
hered to the Tories, to the neglect of his former friends. 
Some of the most important events of this reign were the 
process, instituted in the House of Lords, against the queen, 
Caroline, for misconduct, the object of which was to deprive 
her of her rights and privileges as queen ; the interposition 
in favor of the Greeks in their struggle for independence, 
together with the great naval victory over the Turkish fleet 
at Navarino, gained by the united fleets of England, France, 
and Russia ; and also the passing of the bill for abolishing 
the disabilities of the Roman Catholics, a measure which 
had long divided and agitated the nation. 

17. George IV. was succeeded, in 1830, by his brother, 
the Duke of Clarence, who bears the title of William IV, 
For many years, the question of a reform of the representa- 
tion of the people, in the House of Commons, had been much 
agitated ; and soon after the accession of William, the Duke 
of Wellington, the prime minister, expressed himself strongly 
against any reform ; but the duke and his colleagues, not 
finding themselves supported by a majority of the House of 
Commons, resigned, and were succeeded by a whig ministry 
with Earl Grey at the head. A great measure of parlia- 
mentary reform was brought forward, under the direction of 
this ministry, and after a long and violent struggle, was 
carried through both houses of parliament in 1832. This 
measure, on account of the great changes which it has 
made, the strong sensation which it has produced throughout 
the country, and the consequences which are expected to 
result from it, is regarded as one of the most important events 
in the history of Great Britain. 

[For a chronological view of the History of England, see 
yage 333.] 



EUROPEAN STATES. 219 



EUROPEAN STATES. 



The history of the other States of Europe is less interesting 
and important, especially to American readers, than that of 
England and France. A chronological outline of the history 
of Germany and Spain is exhibited in the Historical Chart of 
the German Empire and that of Spain ; and some account of 
the origin of all the following states, as well as the succession 
of sovereigns by whom they have been governed, is given in 
the Chart of the Sovereigns of Europe, which may be advan- 
tageously attended to in connection with the following notices. 



SCOTLAND. 



1. The pretensions of Scotland to a regular succession of 
kings, from so remote a period as the time of Alexander the 
Great, are not supported by any credible evidence. — When 
Britain was abandoned by the Romans, A. D. 410, Scotland 
was divided among a number of hostile tribes, the principal 
of which were the Scots and Picts ; but between the years 
838 and 843, Kenneth II subdued the latter, and became 
king of all Scotland. 

2. Various contests took place between Scotland and the 
kings of England, the most memorable of which happened in 
the reign of Edward I, who conquered the country ; but he 
found able antagonists in the heroic Sir William Wallace and 
Robert Bruce ; the latter of whom defeated the English in the 
decisive battle of Bannockburn, and established himself on the 
throne. 

3. James VI, the infant son of the celebrated queen Mary, 
was proclaimed king, after her resignation in 1567, and suc- 
ceeded to the crown of England in 1603 ; since which period 
the two countries have been governed by one and the same 
monarch ; and this connection was rendered perpetual by the 
union of the two kingdoms, in 1706, during the reign of queen 
Anne. 



220 EUROPEAN STATES, 



GERMANY. 

1. In 843, the Empire of the West was divided into three 
monarchies, France, Germany, and Italy ; and at the close 
of the reign of Charles the Fat, in 887, the imperial dignity 
was transferred entirely to Germany, which, in European his- 
tory, is styled, by way of eminence, the Empire, and its sub- 
jects, the Imperialists. During more than half of the 10th 
century, it was governed, successively, by two able sovereigns, 
Henry the Fowler, and his son, Otho the Great. The latter 
reunited Italy to the empire, and was the greatest sovereign 
of the age. 

2. The reign of Henry IV., sometimes called the Great, is 
memorable for his quarrel with, and humiliating submission to, 
pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand). The election of Conrad 
III. gave rise to two celebrated factions, the Guelphs and 
Ghibelines, which harassed Germany and Italy during three 
centuries ; and during this period the imperial authority de- 
clined, and the papal increased. The Ghibelines were at- 
tached to the emperor ; the Guelphs to the pope. 

3. The reign of Frederick I, surnamed Barbarossa, or 
Red-beard, was signalized by his contests with pope Alexander 
III, and by a crusade to the Holy Land, during which he 
was drowned in the river Cydnus in Cilicia. — After the reign 
of Conrad IV., succeeded a period of contention and confu- 
sion, called the Great Interregnum, which, after continuing 
19 years, was terminated by the election of Rodolph y count 
of Hapsburg, in Switzerland, to the imperial throne. 

4. The principal events in the history of the latter empe- 
rors of the Franconian line, and of all the princes of the Swa- 
bian line, were produced by contests between the popes and 
the emperors. [See Historical Chart of the German Em- 
pire.] The grounds of these contests were, 1st, the right 
claimed by the emperors, of nominating to vacant bishoprics, 
and the form of investing the bishops with the temporal pos- 
sessions of their sees ; 2d, the claims of the popes to hold 
their possessions in Italy independent of the emperors ; 3d, 
the claim of the popes to supreme dominion, both temporal 
and spiritual, in every part of the Christian world. 

5. The reign of Louis IV. was much disturbed by contests 
with pope John XXII The emperor was excommunicated 
by the pope, and his election declared void ; and the pope 
was also deposed by the emperor. The princes of the empire 



EUROPEAN STATES. 221 

assembled at Frankfort, in 1338, and established the famous 
constitution, called the Pragmatic Sanction ; by which it was 
determined that the pope had no right to approve or reject 
the election of an emperor. 

6. The reign of Sigismund is memorable for the meeting 
of the famous Council of Constance, in order to determine the 
contest respecting the papal authority. John Huss and Jer- 
ome of Prague were condemned and burnt by this council. 
Their adherents in Bohemia took up arms in defence of their 
religion, and under their famous leader Zisca, resisted Sigis- 
mund in a war of 16 years. 

7. Maximilian I. acquired by marriage the sovereignty of 
the Netherlands, divided Germany into circles, instituted the 
Imperial Chamber and the Aulic Council, and by these means 
established a perpetual peace among the separate states, and 
laid the foundation of the subsequent grandeur of the empire. 

8. Charles V. [Charles I. of Spain] grandson of Maximil- 
ian, was the greatest and most powerful sovereign of his age. 
After a reign of nearly 40 years, during most of which he 
was engaged in war, chiefly with his great rival, Francis I. 
of France, and raised the house of Austria to its highest splen- 
dor, he voluntarily resigned the crown of Spain to his son 
Philip II. , left the throne of Germany to his brother Ferdi- 
nand, and retired to the monastery of St. Just in Spain, in 
order to devote himself to the privacy of monastic life, and 
forget the cares of government and the temptations of the 
world. During his reign, the Reformation made great progress 
in Germany, which, however, Charles strenuously opposed. 

9. The reigns of Ferdinand II. and Ferdinand III. were 
signalized by the Thirty years'' war, which commenced in 
1618, and was terminated by the peace of Westphalia, in 
1648. This war grew chiefly out of the religious dissensions 
of the 16th century : on one side was the Protestant confed- 
eracy, styled the Evangelical Union ; and on the other, the 
Catholic League. It issued in securing an equal establish- 
ment of the Protestant and Catholic religions. 

10. By the death of Charles VI, the male line of the house 
of Hapsburg became extinct ; and the circumstance of there 
being two claimants to the throne, gave rise to a war, styled 
the war of the Austrian Succession, which was terminated by 
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, by which the claim of 
the celebrated Maria Theresa was acknowledged, and her 
consort, Francis of Lorraine, was invested wi' \ the imperial 
dignity. 

19* 



222 EUROPEAN STATES, 

11. Ill 1806, Francis II., who had two years before as- 
sumed the title of hereditary emperor of Austria, solemnly 
resigned his title as emperor of Germany. Thus ended the 
German empire, after having lasted, from the commencement 
of the Western Empire under Charlemagne, 1006 years. 

12. The imperial government was hereditary during the 
Carlovingian dynasty ; afterwards always elective, but the 
mode of election was different at different periods. At first 
the emperor was chosen by the people at large ; then by the 
nobility and principal officers of state ; afterwards by the five 
following great officers, namely, the chancellor, the great 
marshal, the great chamberlain, the great butler, and the 
great master of the palace. At first they assumed the right 
of only proposing candidates to the general body of electors ; 
but at length confined the whole right of election to them- 
selves. — After much discontent, this was finally settled in the 
reign of Charles IV., by the celebrated constitution called the 
Golden Bull, which fixed the right of election in 4 spiritual 
and 3 temporal electors, namely, the Archbishops of Mentz, 
of Cologne, and of Treves ; the King of Bohemia ; the Count 
Palatine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Branden- 
burg. At subsequent periods, the Dukes of Bavaria and of 
Brunswick-Lunenburg were advanced to the electoral dignity - 



SPAIN. 

1. In the early part of the 5th century, Spain, after having 
long been in the possession of the Romans, was invaded by 
the Suevi, Vandals, and Alans, who were, ere long, subdued 
by the Visigoths, or Western Goths. In the early part of the 
8th century, the country was invaded by the Moors or Sara- 
cens, who, under their commander Muza, gained, in 713, the 
great battle of Xtres, in which Roderick, the Gothic king, 
was slain. 

2. In a few years, the Moors overran the most of the country, 
which, for some time, was governed by viceroys of the Sara- 
cen Caliphs ; but in 755, Abderrahman, of the house of Om- 
miades, established an independent sovereignty, and assumed 



EUROPEAN STATES. 223 

the title of Caliph of Cordova ; which city he made the seat 
of his empire, and also of arts and magnificence ; and his 
posterity kept possession of the throne nearly three centuries. 
But the territories of the Moors were soon divided into a num- 
ber of separate sovereignties, of which the most considerable, 
in the earlier part of their residence in Spain, was the caliph- 
ate of Cordova, and in the latter part, the caliphate of Granada, 

3. When Spain was first invaded and conquered by the 
Moors, the Gothic, or, as they were now styled, the Christian 
forces, retired into the Asturias, and under their leader Pela- 
gio, founded a kingdom in 718 ; and they gradually recovered 
other parts of the country. For several centuries, the history 
of Spain presents a continued struggle between the Christians 
and Moors ; and the latter part of the 11th century was illus- 
trated by the exploits of the famous Spanish hero Don Rod- 
rigo Diaz, Count of Bivar, surnamed the Cid. 

4. Several distinct Christian kingdoms, which subsisted 
for a long period, were established, the most considerable of 
which were Castile and Leon, Arragon, and Navarre. In 
1479, Ferdinand H., who had been previously married to 
Isabella, queen of Castile and Leon, succeeded to the throne 
of Arragon, and their kingdoms now became united. Gra- 
nada, the only possession now held by the Moors in Spain, 
was soon after taken ; Navarre was subsequently conquered, 
and all Spain became, for the first time, united into one 
monarchy. 

5. The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella forms an eventful 
period in the history of Spain, on account of military exploits, 
the expulsion of the Moors, the union of the country into one 
kingdom, and the discovery of America, which brought an 
immense accession of wealth to the Spanish crown, and laid 
the foundation for vast colonial possessions in this continent. 

6. During the long reigns of Charles I. [Charles V. of Ger- 
many] and Philip H., Spain acted a conspicuous part in the 
affairs of the world ; and on account of her extensive posses- 
sions in both continents, was regarded as the most formidable 
power in Europe ; but since that period, her comparative con- 
sequence has declined, and she has long held only a secondary 
rank among the European states. The most flourishing period 
of Spanish literature was during the time when the kingdom 
was governed by princes of the house of Austria, in the 16th 
and 17th centuries. 



224 EUROPEAN STATES. 



PORTUGAL. 

1. This kingdom forms the greatest part of what was an- 
ciently called Lusitania; and its early history is involved 
with that of Spain ; it having been successively in subjection 
to the Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, and Moors. 

2. In the contests between the Moors and Christians, Hen- 
ry, Duke of Burgundy, having rendered important services to 
Alphonso, or Alonzo, king of Castile, was rewarded by him, 
in 1094, with that part of Portugal which was not in posses- 
sion of the Moors, to be held with the title of count or earl. 
He was succeeded by his son Alphonso, who gained a signal 
victory over the Moors, at Orique, threw off the Castilian 
yoke, and assumed the title of king, in 1139. 

3. The reign of John I. is famous for his victories over the 
Castilians, and his expeditions against the Moors ; but still 
more so for the impulse given by prince Henry the Mariner, 
to navigation and the progress of discovery, a department of 
enterprise and skill in which the Portuguese were, for a long 
time, unrivalled by any other nation. 

4. The reigns of John II. and Emanuel were distinguished 
for important discoveries. During the reign of the former, 
Bartholomew Diaz reached the Cape of Good Hope, in 1486 ; 
and during that of the latter, Vasco de Gama, in 1497, doubled 
the same cape, and sailed to India. From that period, the 
trade between that country and Europe was diverted from its 
former channel through the Red Sea and Egypt ; and for 
many years the navigation of the Cape was considered as the 
exclusive property of the Portuguese, on the ground of first 
discovery ; nor was their monopoly effectually invaded till the 
rise of the Dutch. 

5. The space intervening between the commencement of 
the reign of John I. and the conquest of Portugal by Philip II. 
of Spain, forms the golden period of the monarchy— a period 
which was illustrated by the exploits, both in discovery and 
conquest, of a succession of distinguished heroes, and also by 
the productions of several men of genius and learning, among 
whom the poet Camoens, the author of the Lusiad, who flour- 
ished during the latter part of this period, holds the first 
rank. 

6. In 1580, the male line of the royal family of Portugal 
having become extinct, and the kingdom having suffered a 
series? of misfortunes, Philip II. of Spain seized upon it, and 



EUROPEAN STATES. 225 

united it to his crown ; but in 1640, the Spaniards were ex- 
pelled, and John, Duke of Braganza, the presumptive heir, 
was raised to the throne, in whose family it still remains. 

7. Two years after the discovery of the Cape of Good 
Hope, Cabral, a Portuguese, discovered Brazil, which was 
colonized about the middle of the 16th century, and till lately, 
formed an important part of the territories of the kings of 
Portugal. 

8. In 1807, Portugal being invaded by the French, the 
royal family removed the seat of government to Brazil, where 
they remained till 1820, when they returned to Lisbon, with 
the exception of Pedro or Peter, the king's eldest son, who 
was left regent. In 1823, Brazil was declared an indepen- 
dent empire, under Pedro, who took the title of emperor ; and 
in 1825, its independence was acknowledged by Portugal, 
In 1826, the throne of Portugal became vacant by the death 
of John VI. Pedro, the emperor of Brazil, resigned his claims 
to the crown in favor of his daughter Maria da Gloria, who 
was proclaimed queen, and Isabella, a sister of Pedro, was 
appointed regent ; but Miguel, a younger brother of Pedro, 
has usurped the throne. 



THE NETHERLANDS. 

1. This country, during the Middle Ages, comprised various 
small states, governed by counts or earls. In the 15th cen- 
tury, most of the country, which had then become the seat 
of extensive manufactures and the centre of European com- 
merce, was possessed by the Duke of Burgundy ; but in the 
latter part of the century, these provinces were transferred, by 
the marriage of Maximilian, to the house of Austria. 

2. In 1555, they were resigned by Charles V. to his son 
Philip II., king of Spain. In 1579, the Seven United Prov- 
inces of Holland revolted from the tyranny of Philip, and es- 
tablished their independence : part of the others continued in 
the possession of Spain till the peace of Utrecht, in 1703^ 
when they were again ceded to the house of Austria, which 
held them till 1794, when they were conquered by the 
French. 

3. Soon after the Dutch Provinces had emancipated them- 
selves from Spain, and established their independence and a 
free government, they rose, by industry and enterprise, to a 



Q26 EUROPEAN STATES. 

high degree of prosperity, and became one of the most for- 
midable maritime powers in the world. They stripped the 
Spaniards of some of their most valuable establishments in 
the East Indies and America, and extended their commerce 
in all directions. 

4. The Seventeen Provinces were, for a few years, united 
to the French empire ; but by the congress of Vienna, they 
were erected into a kingdom under the government of the 
Prince of Orange, whose title is king of the Netherlands and 
grand duke of Luxemburg. 



POLAND. 

1. Miceslaus, prince of Poland, introduced Christianity into 
the country in the 10th century. The most flourishing period 
of the monarchy was during the 15th and 16th centuries, when 
Poland ranked among the most formidable states of Europe. 

2. Casimir III., surnamed the Great, in the 14th century, 
founded the university of Cracow, patronized learning, en- 
couraged - ' industry and commerce, and furnished the nation 
with a code of written laws. In the latter part of the 14th 
century, Jagellon [Ladislaus V.], Duke of Lithuania, by his 
marriage with Hedwiga, queen of Poland, united the two 
countries. 

3. Under the reign of Sigismund I, the kingdom reached 
its highest pitch of dominion and splendor. It afterwards 
declined, but its falling glory was, for a time, upheld by John 
Sobieski, the last great man among its sovereigns. 

4. Poland was conquered by the sovereigns of Russia, Aus- 
tria, and Prussia, and subjected by them to three different 
partitions ; the first in 1772 ; the second in 1793 ; the third 
in 1795, when Stanislaus was deprived of regal dignity, and 
his ill-fated country, by an act of the vilest tyranny, was blot- 
ted out from the list of kingdoms. 



SWEDEN. 



1. This country, together with Norway, formed the Scan- 
dinavia of the ancients, the original seat of the Goths and 
Vandah — In the latter part of the 14th century, Sweden be- 



EUROPEAN STATES. 227 

came subject to Margaret of Denmark, styled the Semiramis 
of tJie North, who joined the three kingdoms of Denmark, 
Sweden, and Norway in one, by the Union of Calmar, in 
1397. But her successor being destitute of her great abili- 
ties, this union fell to nothing, and Sweden was, for a long 
time, disturbed by insurrections and war. 

2. In the early part of the 16th century, the Swedes were 
delivered from the oppression of Christian II, king of Den- 
mark, styled the Nero of the North, by Gustavus Vasa, a de- 
scendant from the ancient kings, and an enlightened prince, 
who was raised to the throne, and who promoted the welfare 
of his subjects, and introduced the Protestant religion. 

3. The reign of Gustavus Adolphus, surnamed the Great, 
forms a distinguished era in the history of Sweden. He was 
eminent as a statesman and a sovereign, and is ranked among 
the greatest commanders of modern times. He took part with 
the Protestants in the Thirty years' war, and was their most 
distinguished general. After having gained a series of ad van 
tages, he was slain in the battle of Lutzen. 

4. Charles XII, who possessed an enthusiastic passion for 
glory, and a romantic spirit to a degree of infatuation, is by 
some styled the Alexander, and by others the Madman, of the 
North. After a brilliant career of victory in his wars with 
the Danes, Poles, and Russians, he was, at last, entirely de- 
feated by Peter the Great, in the battle of Poltava ; since 
which, the Swedish territories have been exposed to a pro- 
gressive reduction by the rising power of Russia. 

5. Gustavus IV., having lost Finland, which was conquer- 
ed, in 1808, by Russia, and, by his mad schemes, brought 
his kingdom to the brink of ruin, was, in 1809, deposed, and 
Bernadotte, one of Bonaparte's generals, was elected crown 
prince. On the death of Charles XIII., in 1818, Bernadotte 
succeeded to the throne, by the title of Charles XIV. The 
loss of Finland has since been repaired by the acquisition of 
Norway. 



DENMARK. 



1. In 1448, the crown of Denmark fell to Christian I., of 
the house of Holstein or Oldenburg. The monarchy was 
originally elective, and great power was possessed by the no- 
bility, until the year 1660, when, partly in consequence of 



228 EUROPEAN STATES. 

the unfavorable issue of a war with Sweden, and partly on 
account of the oppression of the aristocracy, it was changed 
to a hereditary absolute government. 

2. In the beginning of the 18th century, Denmark, during 
the reign of Frederick IV., waged an unsuccessful war against 
Charles XII. of Sweden, which was ended in 1720 ; from 
which time the country enjoyed almost uninterrupted peace 
till 1801. 

3. During the pacific reigns of Christian VI and Frederick 
V., the kingdom was in a prosperous condition. The latter 
was assisted by Count Bernstoff, a distinguished statesman, 
whose nephew, of the same name, acted an important and 
conspicuous part in government, during the reign of Chris- 
tian VII 

4. Christian VII., a weak and dissolute prince, married 
Caroline Matilda, sister of George III. of England, who was 
accused of having had improper connection with Count Stru- 
ensee, the minister and favorite of the king. Struensee was 
condemned and executed, and Matilda, after being impris- 
oned, was permitted to pass the remainder of her life at Zell, 
in Hanover. 

5. In 1801, Copenhagen was attacked by a British fleet 
under Lord Nelson ; and in 1807, when the country was at 
peace, the city was bombarded by a British armament under 
Lord Cathcart and Admiral Gambier, under pretence that in- 
formation had been received that Denmark -ntended to throw 
herself into the scale of France. The whole Danish fleet, 
consisting of 18 ships of the line, and 15 frigates, were sur- 
rendered to the British. This unjust transaction has been 
generally and loudly exclaimed against. 



PRUSSIA. 



1. The foundation of Prussian greatness was laid by Fred- 
erick William, surnamed the Great Elector, who succeeded to 
the government in 1640, and had a long and prosperous reign. 
His successor, Frederick, a weak and vain prince, was raised 
to the rank, and received the title of king, in 1701. 

2. Frederick II, surnamed the Great, after suffering much 
hard treatment from his father, ascended the throne in 1740; 
and being ambitious of conquest and military glory, he imme- 
diately invaded Silesia, with a fine army, which had been left 



EUROPEAN STATES. 229 

to him by the late king, and was so successful as to obtain the 
cession of that valuable province. 

3. In 1756, Frederick published a declaration of war against 
Maria Theresa, empress of Germany, who was aided by the 
French and Russians. The contest, which was carried on 
with great spirit on both sides, and was signalized by many 
hard-fought and bloody battles, was terminated by the peace 
of Habertsberg , in 1763 : " and thus, after a seven years' san- 
guinary struggle, to which his unprincipled projects had given 
rise, and in which, independent of other sufferers, more than 
half a million of combatants had fallen in the field, every thing 
was replaced on its ancient footing, and the only gainful result 
was simply this, that Frederick of Prussia had been furnished 
with an opportunity of proving himself a consummate com- 
mander, animated by an unconquerable spirit of military her- 
oism, and endued with one of the coolest heads and hardest 
hearts in Christendom." 

4. Frederick afterwards applied himself to the internal im- 
provement of his kingdom ; rebuilt towns, encouraged agri- 
culture, manufactures, and commerce. In the first partition 
of Poland, he was the prime mover and the principal agent 
He is esteemed one of the greatest commanders of modern 
times, and was, perhaps, the most indefatigable sovereign that 
ever existed. He was fond of literature, and possessed ex- 
tensive literary acquirements, and considerable merit as an 
author ; but he was despotic in his disposition, and had little 
sense of justice or humanity. 

5. In the late European war, Frederick William III., the 
present king of Prussia, suffered a great defeat by the French 
under Bonaparte, at Jena ; and at the peace of Tilsit, he lost 
nearly one half of his territories. In 1813, he joined the co- 
alition against France, and his army, under Bluchcr, contrib- 
uted a powerful aid in the overthrow of Bonaparte ; and by 
the treaty of Vienna, he gained a large accession of territory. 



RUSSIA. 

1. The importance of Russia, which is now one of the 
most powerful sovereignties of Europe, is of recent origin. 
The foundation of its greatness was laid by Peter the Gr'at, 
who reigned from 1696 to 1725, and who was one of the most 
extraordinary princes that ever appeared. He joined in a co- 
20 



230 EUROPEAN STATES. 

aHtion against Charles XII of Sweden, and, after suffering 
some defeats, gained the great battle of Poltava, and enlarged 
and strengthened his empire. 

2. Catharine II, who obtained the sceptre, in 1762, by 
the dethronement and murder of her husband, Peter III, 
had a long and splendid reign. She displayed extraordinary 
talents for government ; carried on the system of improvement 
which had been begun by Peter the Great ; employed able 
ministers and generals, among the most celebrated of whom 
were Suwarrow and Potemkin ; and enlarged her empire by 
the addition of a part of Poland, the Crimea, and other terri- 
tories : — but her public character was stained by unprincipled 
ambition, profound dissimulation, and disregard to justice ; 
and her private character was extremely licentious. 

3. Catharine was succeeded, in 1796, by her son Paul, 
who, after a short and distracted reign, was assassinated in 
1801, and succeeded by his son Alexander, a popular and 
prosperous sovereign, during whose reign the power and do- 
minions of Russia were extended, and objects of public im- 
provement promoted. In 1812, Bonaparte made his disas- 
trous invasion of Russia, and here met with the first effectual 
check to his career of victory and conquest. 

4. In 1825, Alexander was succeeded by his brother Nich- 
olas, the present emperor, whose reign has been distinguished 
for the wars carried on against the Turks and Persians. The 
war against Turkey was declared in April, 1828, and the 
Russian army soon after invaded the Turkish dominions, 
took Brailow, Varna, and various other important posts. 
During the campaign of 1829, the Russians, commanded by 
Count Diebitsch, after having taken Silistria and other places, 
crossed the Balkan mountains, took the city of Adrianople, 
and compelled the Turks to accede to their conditions of 
peace ; and in September, 1829, a treaty was signed at 
Adrianople. 



ROME. 

1. The temporal power of the pope [Stephen II.,] commen- 
ced in 755, and it attained its zenith in the 11th century, 
during the pontificate of Gregory VII [Hildebrand], who 
assumed authority over kings and potentates. 

2. The first half of the 16th century is a memorable era in 
the history of the papacy. Pope Julius II, the projector of 



EUROPEAN STATES. 231 

the League of Cambray, was distinguished as a statesman and 
a warrior ; and his successor, Leo X., the son of the famous 
Lorenzo de Medici, was a liberal patron of learning. During 
his pontificate, the Reformation was begun by Luther. Since 
that event, the power of the Roman pontiff has been greatly 
diminished. 

3. In 1809, Bonaparte united the Ecclesiastical States to 
the French empire, and the temporal power of the pope was 
for a while suspended ; but by the congress of Vienna, he 
was reinstated in nearly all his former possessions. 



TURKEY. 



1. The Turks are a Tartar nation, originally from Asia. 
The first notice of them in history, is about the year 800, 
when, issuing from an obscure retreat, they took possession 
of a part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. Their 
dominions, divided for some time into petty states, were uni- 
ted under Othman, Ottoman, or Osman, who assumed the 
title of Sultan, and established his empire at Prusa in Bi- 
thynia, in 1298. 

2. In 1360, the most of Thrace was conquered by them 
under Amurath I, who made Adrianople the seat of his gov- 
ernment ; his successor, Bqjazet, conquered most of the East- 
ern or Greek empire ; and in 1453, Mahomet II took Co»- 
stantinople, which has ever since continued to be the seat of 
the Ottoman or Turkish empire. 

3. The Turks afterwards widely extended their empire in 
Europe, Asia, and Africa, and gained possession of the great- 
er part of the countries most celebrated in ancient history. 
During the reign of Selim I., Syria and Egypt were conquer- 
ed. The reign of Solyman the Magnificent was more illus- 
trious than that of any other of the sultans. He took the 
island of Rhodes from the knights of St. John, besieged 
Vienna, made the king of Hungary his tributary, reduced 
Bagdad, conquered the whole of Assyria, Mesopotamia, and 
Tunis ; and established excellent laws in his dominions. 

4. Since the reign of Solyman, the Turks have been enga- 
ged in various sanguinary wars, particularly with the Austri- 
ans, Russians, and also with the Persians under Kouli-Khan, 

5. The Turkish power has lately been much weakened, in 
consequ ?nce of the revolt of the Greeks, and also of the ca- 



232 EUROPEAN STATES. 

lamitous war with Russia, which has been recently terminated 
by the peace of Adrianople. 

6. The Greeks commenced an open revolt in 1821. After 
a war had been, for a considerable time, carried on, with sav- 
age ferocity, between them and the Turks, several European 
nations interposed in their favor ; and in 1827, the combined 
fleets of England, France, and Russia, almost annihilated the 
Turkish naval force in the battle of Navarino. In 1828, the 
Morea and a :>art of the Greek islands, being liberated from 
Turkisn thraidom, were formed into an independent govern- 
ment under Count Capo d'Istria as president of Greece. 



AMERICA. 233 



AMERICA. 

Discovery and Settlement : — Columbus, Am ricus, Cabot, 
tipc. : Conquest of Mexico and Peru ; — Cortex, Pizarro, 
$c.—From A. D. 1492 to 1600. 

1. The discovery of America was the greatest achievement 
of the kind ever performed by man ; and, considered in con- 
nection with its consequences, it is the greatest event of 
modern times. It served to wake up the unprecedented spirit 
of enterprise : it opened new sources of wealth, and exerted 
a powerful influence on commerce, by greatly increasing 
many important articles of trade, and also by bringing into 
general use many others before unknown : by leading to the 
discovery of the rich mines of this continent, it has caused 
the quantity of the precious metals in circulation throughout 
the world, to be exceedingly augmented : it also gave a new 
impulse to colonization, and prepared the way for the advan- 
tages of civilized life, and the blessings of Christianity, to be 
extended over vast regions, which before were the miserable 
abodes of barbarism and pagan idolatry. 

2. The man to whose genius and enterprise the world 
is indebted for this discovery, was Christopher Columbus, of 
Genoa. He was the son of a wool-comber ; was engaged in a 
sea-faring life from the age of 14 ; was well versed in the 
sciences of geometry, astronomy, and geography ; had more 
correct ideas of the figure of the earth, than were common in 
his time,; was singularly qualified for executing an arduous 
expedition ; being well skilled in naval science ; fertile in 
expedients ; patient and persevering ; grave and dignified in 
his deportment ; master of himself, and skilful in the govern- 
ment of other men. 

3. He conceived that, in order to complete the balance of 
the terraqueous globe, another continent necessarily existed, 
which might be reached by sailing to the west from Europe; 
but he erroneously connected it with India. Being persuaded 
of the truth of his theory, his adventurous spirit made hirn 
eager to verify it by experiment. 

4. The passage round the Cape of Good Hope not being 
then known, the merchandise of India was, in order to be 
conveyed to Europe, brought up the Red sea, and transported 
across the land to Alexandria. To find a passage ts China 

20* 5 



234 AMERICA. 

and the East Indies by sea, had long been an object of in- 
vestigation ; and it was in quest of a shorter and easier route 
by the west, that Columbus undertook his voyage of discov- 
ery. The riches of the East were the bribe and inducement 
which he held out to the sovereign or the state, that should 
enable him to execute his design. 

5. He first applied for assistance to his countrymen, the 
Genoese, then to the Portuguese, then to Ferdinand of Spain, 
and then, by means of his brother Bartholomew, to Henry 
VII. of England ; but all without success ; and he had the 
mortification to be considered a visionary projector. At 
length, after 7 years of persevering and anxious solicitation 
and contemptuous neglect, in Spain, and 18 years after he 
had first conceived the enterprise, he obtained a gleam of 
royal favor from queen Isabella. By her means he was pro- 
vided with three small vessels, victualled for 12 months, and 
having on board 90 men. The expense of building and sup- 
plying the whole, was only about <£4,000. He was appointed 
admiral of all the seas which he should explore, and governor 
of all the islands and countries which he should discover and 
subdue. 

6. With the small and ill-appointed fleet which had been 
furnished, he sailed from Palos, in Spain, on the 3d of 
August, 1492. He steered directly for the Canary islands, 
where having refitted, he proceeded on his voyage, on the 
6th of September, passing into seas, which no vessel had 
been known to have ever explored, and without a chart to 
direct his course. 

7. He had soon occasion to make use of all his talents and 
address. After having sailed about 200 leagues from the 
Canaries, the variation of the magnetic needle from its direc- 
tion to the polar star, a. phenomenon which had never before 
been observed, excited alarm in his own breast, and filled the 
sailors with terror and dismay to such a degree, that they 
were ready to rise in open mutiny. But, with great presence 
of mind, he made a solution of the phenomenon, which served 
to silence the murmurs of his crew, though it was unsatisfac- 
tory to himself. Having pursued their course for 30 days 
longer, without discovering land, the murmurs of the crew 
again broke out, and with increased violence. Columbus 
made use of encouragement and exhortation ; but, according 
to Oviedo, was compelled to yield so far to their importunity, 
as to propose, that if, after proceeding three days more, no 
Ian I were discovered, he would instantly return. 



AMERICA, 235 

8. Strong indications of land had already begun to appear ; 
and in the night of the 11th of October, Columbus, who was 
standing on the forecastle, discovered a light ahead. The 
morning displayed the joyful sight of land! A hymn of 
thanksgiving to Almighty God was sung by the whole crew, 
who immediately united in the most ardent expressions of 
admiration for their commander, with acknowledgments of 
their rashness and disobedience. 

9. The island first discovered was St. Salvador, or Cat 
Island, one of the Bahamas. He afterwards discovered Cuba 
and Hayti, or St. Domingo, which he named Hispaniola, 
and on which he landed, and left some of his men to form a 
colony. In conformity with the theory which he had adopted, 
he connected these islands with India, believing them at no 
great distance from that unexplored region : and as he had 
reached them by a western passage, he denominated them 
the West Indies. And in accordance with this theory, the 
aborigines of America, from the time of the first discovery, 
have been designated by the appellation of Indians. 

10. Having obtained a quantity of gold and some of the 
natives, he set sail on his return to Spain. During the voyage 
a violent tempest arose, which lasted fifteen days, and exposed 
the fleet to extreme danger ; and, in order to afford a small 
chance that the world might not lose the benefit of his dis- 
covery, and that his own name might not go down to posterity 
as a visionary projector, he had the presence of mind to write 
a short account of his voyage, which he wrapped in an oiled 
cloth, and enclosed in a cake of wax ; and putting this into 
an empty cask, he committed it to the sea, in lopes that u 
might fall into the hands of some fortunate navigator, or be 
cast ashore. But the storm happily abated, and Columbus en- 
tered the port from which he had sailed about seven months 
before, amidst the acclamations and wonder of the multitude. 
He proceeded immediately to the court, where he was received 
with respect and admiration. 

11. Columbus afterwards made a second and a third voyage, 
in the latter of which he discovered, in 1498, the Continent 
of South America ; but his successes and honors did not fail 
to excite envy and intrigues against him in the court of Spain. 
In consequence of false accusations, he was deprived of the 
government of Hispaniola, and sent home in chains. The 
captain of the vessel which carried him, impressed with the 
highest veneration for his captive, and feeling the deepest 
regret for the indignity which he suffered, offered to release 



236 AMERICA. 

him from his fetters. " No," said Columbus, in a burst of 
generous indignation , " I wear these irons in consequence 
of an order from their majesties, the rulers of Spain. They 
shall find me as obedient to this, as to their other injunctions,. 
By their command I have been confined ; and their command 
alone shall set me at liberty." 

12. But he never forgot the unjust and shameful treatment 
which he had received. Through the whole of his after life, 
he carried his fetters with him, as a memorial of the ingrati- 
tude which he had experienced. He hung them up in his 
chamber, and gave orders that they should be buried with 
him in his grave. 

13. Upon the arrival of Columbus in Spain, a prisoner and 
in fetters, the indignation of all men was highly excited ; and 
Ferdinand, cold, distant, and haughty as he was, felt for 
awhile the emotions of shame. But after detaining him for 
a. long time, in a fatiguing and vexatious attendance, he ap- 
pointed another person governor of Hispaniola in his stead. 
Such was the reward which the great discoverer of this west- 
ern world received, for having devised and carried on to a 
successful issue, one of the noblest and most daring enter- 
prises that ever entered into the mind of man ; and such is the 
account which impartial history is constrained to give of the 
justice and gratitude of kings ! 

14. Columbus, intent on finding a passage to India by the 
west, afterwards made a fourth voyage, examined the coast of 
Darien, and was shipwrecked on the coast of the island of 
Jamaica. He here obtained, for a time, an astonishing com- 
mand over the Indians, by predicting an eclipse of the moon. 
After having endured a great variety of suffering and calam- 
ity, from the mutiny and treachery of his men, from conflicts 
with the natives, from scarcity of provisions, and from sick- 
ness, in this his last and most disastrous expedition, he re- 
turned to Spain ; and, worn out with fatigue, disappointment, 
and sorrow, he died at VaUadolid, in 1506, at about the age 
of 70 years. His funeral, by the order of Philip, who had re- 
cently ascended the throne, was extremely magnificent, and 
the following inscription was engraved on his tomb : — " To 
Castile and Leon, Columbus has given a new world." 

15. But this great man was unjustly deprived of the honor 
of giving his name to this continent by Americus Vesputius, a 
native of Florence, who accompanied Ojeda in a voyage, in 
1499, and discovered a part of the coast of South America, 
the rext year after the continent had been discovered by Co- 



AMERICA. 237 

lumbus. He wrote an account of this voyage claiming the 
honor of being the first discoverer of the main land; and from 
him the continent has been named America. But this act of 
injustice, how much soever it is to be regretted, has done no 
real injury to the reputation of the one, nor benefit to that of 
the other ; our feelings rather incline us to enhance the merit 
of Columbus, as one whose noble achievement has been ill 
requited, and to detract from that of Americus, as one who 
would usurp the honors of another. 

16. In 1497, Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, first doubled 
the Cape of Good Hope, and sailed to India. By this, he 
effected what was a leading object with Columbus in his en- 
terprise, and what had been, during the preceding century, 
an object of investigation, namely, the discovery of a more 
expeditious and convenient passage to the East Indies, than 
through Egypt. In 1519, Magellan, a Portuguese in the 
service of Spain, passed the straits which bear his name, and 
launched into the vast ocean, which he called Pacific ; but 
he lost his life at one of the Philippine islands ; yet his officers 
proceeded on the voyage, and accomplished, for the first time, 
the circumnavigation of the globe. 

17. John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, but an inhabitant of 
Bristol, in England, received a commission from Henry VII., 
and sailed in the beginning of May, 1497, on a voyage of 
discovery, accompanied by his son, Sebastian Cabot; and one 
or both of them discovered the Continent of North America^ 
the year before the main land of South America had been dis- 
covered by Columbus, and two years before it had been seen 
by Americus. 

18. The land first seen was called Prima Vista, which is 
supposed to have been a part of Newfoundland. They pro- 
ceeded further to the north, in search of a passage to India ; 
but finding no appearance of one, they tacked about, and 
sailed as far as Florida. They erected crosses along the 
coast, and took a formal possession of the country in behalf 
of the crown of England. This was the foundation of the 
English claim to North America, though no settlements were 
formed till many years after. 

19. Several years passed away, from the time of the first 
discovery of America by Columbus, before any considerable 
settlement was formed by the Spaniards, on the continent. 
In 1519, Fernando Cortez, with a fleet of 11 small vessels, 
having on board 617 men, sailed from Cuba for the invasion 
of Mexico, and landed at Vera Cruz. As fire-arms were not 



238 AMERICA. 

yet in general use, only 13 of the men had muskets ; the rest 
being armed with cross-bows, swords, and spears. Cortez 
had also 10 small field-pieces, and 16 horses — the first of 
these animals ever seen in that country. 

20. Cortez proceeded rapidly from Vera Cruz to the city 
of Mexico, where he was cordially received by Montezuma, 
the hospitable and unsuspecting monarch. The perfidious 
Spaniard, however, caused him to be seized in his palace. 
The Mexicans, roused by this treachery, flew to arms, and 
after a sanguinary struggle, the Spaniards were expelled from 
the capital. Montezuma was killed in the conflict, and was 
succeeded by his nephew Guatimozin. 

21. Cortez, undismayed by this reverse, having obtained 
the assistance of a nation of Indians who were tributary to 
the sovereign of Mexico, but desirous to throw off the yoke ; 
and having procured a reinforcement of Spaniards, besieged 
and took the city, together with Guatimozin, and became 
master of the country in 1521. Thus was the great empire 
of Mexico overthrown by a handful of daring and unprincipled 
adventurers. 

22. In 1518, the Spaniards formed a settlement at Panama, 
on the west side of the gulf of Darien. From this place 
several attempts were made to explore the regions of South 
America ; and hence Pizarro sailed on an expedition, in 
1525, and discovered the rich and flourishing kingdom of 
Peru. He afterwards obtained from Charles V., the king of 
Spain, a commission, as governor of the country, and a mili- 
tary force to subdue it ; and for this purpose, in 1531, he 
sailed from Panama, with three small vessels, and 180 men. 

23. With this little band he invaded the country, marched 
to the residence of the inca or king Atabalipa, and having 
invited him to a friendly interview, and attempted to persuade 
him to embrace the Christian religion, he seized him as a 
prisoner ; and by his order, his men fell upon the defenceless 
and unresistirg attendants of the monarch, and slew upwards 
of 4,000 of them. 

24. The Peruvian monarch, in order to procure his release, 
caused the room in which he was confined, which was 22 feet 
by 17, to be filled for Pizarro, with vessels of gold and silver, 
as high as be could reach. The treasure, which was collected 
from various parts of the empire, amounted, in value, to up- 
wards of ,£1,500,000, which was divided among the conquer- 
ors. But the perfidious Spaniard still held the inca prisoner ; 
and Almagrc lav.ng joined Pizarro with a reinforcement, they 



AMERICA. 239 

brought the monarch to trial ; and, on a charge of being a 
usurper and an idolater, condemned and executed him ! 

25. The Spanish chiefs not long after quarrelled with each 
other, and a civil war ensued. Almagro was taken prisoner, 
condemned, and executed ; and soon after, Pizarro was assas- 
sinated. The Indians took advantage of these contentions ; 
and under their new inca, Huanca Capac, rose against the 
Spaniards ; but they were at last subdued, and Peru became 
a province of Spain. 

26. At the time of the invasion of the Spaniards, the Peru- 
vians and Mexicans had made considerable progress towards 
civilization ; much more than the rest of the Indians. They 
understood the arts of architecture, sculpture, mining, and 
working the precious metals ; cultivated their land, were 
clothed, and had a regular system of government, and a code 
of civil and religious laws. The Peruvians had the superi- 
ority in architecture, and possessed some magnificent palaces 
and temples. They worshipped the sun as the supreme deity, 
and their religion had few of those sanguinary traits, which 
were characteristic of that of the Mexicans. 

27. In 1524, Francis I. of France, willing to share a part 
of the new world with his neighbors, commissioned Verrazano 
on a voyage of discovery. This navigator explored a great 
part of the coast of North America. Ten years afterwards, 
James Cartier set out on a similar expedition, sailed up the 
gulf of St. Lawrence, took possession of the country in be- 
half of the king, and styled it New France ; but the name 
was afterwards changed to Canada. 

28. In 1584, the celebrated Sir Walter Raleigh, under a 
commission from queen Elizabeth, to discover, occupy, and 
govern " remote, heathen, and barbarous countries," not pre- 
viously possessed by any Christian prince or people, arrived 
in America, entered Pamlico sound, and proceeded to Roan- 
oke island, near the mouth of Albemarle sound, and took pos- 
session of the country. On his return to England, he gave 
such a splendid description of the beauty and fertility of the 
region, that Elizabeth, delighted with occupying so fine a 
territory, gave it the name of Virginia, as a memorial thai; 
this happy discovery was made during the reign of a virgin 
queen. 

29. Several attempts were made to form settlements in 
Virginia, by Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Francis Drake, and Sir 
Richard Grenville, but they all proved unsuccessful ; and part 



240 AMERICA. 

of the colonists were carried back to England, part of them 
perished by disease, and part were destroyed by the Indians. 

30. It was the practice of Europeans to take possession of 
the parts of America which they visited, by the pretended 
right of discovery. The original inhabitants were treated as 
if they had no rights, and were no more owners of the soil 
than the beasts of the forest. This example was set by C&- 
lumbus himself. He landed upon St. Salvador, the first island 
discovered, in a gorgeous dress, with a drawn sword in his 
hand, and the royal standard displayed, and took possession 
of the island for the crown of Castile and Leon ; and in con- 
formity to this practice, it was inscribed on his tomb, that to 
this crown he " had given a new world." 

31. The pope, in accordance with principles that were acted 
*ipon in an age of ignorance and superstition, granted to the 
sovereigns of Spain the countries discovered by their subjects 
in the new world. The propagation of Christianity was held 
out as the chief reason for taking possession of America ; and 
the promotion of a religion which breathes "peace on earth 
and good will towards men," was made the pretext for every 
species of injustice, cruelty, bloodshed, and slavery, which the 
defenceless inhabitants of America were destined to experi- 
ence from Cortez, Pizarro, and other unprincipled invaders. 

32. The Spaniards who first came to America, were stim- 
ulated by the desire and expectation of finding the precious 
metals, gold and silver. So powerful was this passion for 
gold, that the first adventurers encountered every possible 
hardship and danger in search of it, and sacrificed millions 
of the wretched natives, whom they compelled to work in the 
mines. The unfortunate Indians were subjected to the mcta t 
a kind of annual conscription, by which they were forced to 
perform, in the mines, for their avaricious task-masters, a ser- 
vice so hard and unhealthy, that it proved fatal to as many as 
about one third of every conscription. 

33. The discovery and settlement of America also gave rise 
to that foul stigma on Christendom, the African slave-trade, 
which was commenced soon after the first colony was estab- 
lished, and has been continued to the present time. By this 
infamous traffic, millions of the unhappy Africans have been 
torn from their native country, and doomed to a miserable 
servitude. 



UNITED STATES. 241 



THE UNITED STATES.* 



SECTION I. 

Settlement and Early History of the Colonies : — Virginia , 
New York ; Colonies of New England ; Indian Wars ; 
Maryland; Pennsylvania. — From A. D. 1607 to 1682. 

1. The vanity of nations, like that of families, inclines them 
to lay claim to a high antiquity ; and the obscurity in which 
their early history is, in most instances, involved, affords them 
an opportunity to indulge this propensity. But with regard to 
the United States, circumstances are different. The vanity 
of the people of this country inclines them to dwell upon their 
recent origin, and their rapid growth ; and the promise which 
these afford of future greatness. Of all independent nations 
of any importance, now existing, this has had the most recent 
origin, and its early history is the best known : nor do the 
annals of the world afford another instance of a nation rising, 
in so short a space of time from its first settlement, to an equal 
degree of power and freedom. 

% Various circumstances have concurred to promote the 
rapid increase in population and wealth, and the progress of 
society, which have been witnessed in this country. The 
first settlers were emigrants from countries advanced in civil- 
ization, and they brought with them the arts of civilized life. 
A great portion of them were men distinguished for intelli- 
gence and enterprise, and were strenuous advocates for civil 
and religious liberty ; and at the first foundation of their set- 
tlements, they paid particular attention to the promotion of 
education. A vast field of enterprise has been constantly 
presented before them, with ample rewards to industry. The 
means of subsistence have been abundant and easily obtain- 
ed ; and extensive tracts of fertile and unoccupied lands, suit- 
able for new settlements, have always been procurable on 
moderate terms. The political and commercial relations of 

* The national existence of the United States, properly so called, 
commenced July Ath, 1776. Before that period, the inhabitants were 
in a state of colonial dependence on Great Britain, and were styled 
the British Colonies in America. Louisiana, which was formerly a 
French colony, and Florida, formerly a Spanish one, have since been 
annexed to the United States. 

21 



242 UNITED STATES. 

the inhabitants have connected them with the most enlight- 
ened nations in the world ; and have afforded them the means 
of being acquainted with the progress of literature and science, 
and with the various improvements in the arts of civilized life. 

3. The colonization of this country originated either in re- 
ligious persecution, carried on in England against the Puri- 
tans and other denominations of Christians, or in visionary 
schemes of adventurers, who set out for the new world in 
quest of settlements, and in pursuit of gain. It was the former 
cause which peopled the colonies of New England; and it 
was to the latter that the colonies of Virginia and New York 
owed their origin. These may be considered as the original 
or parent colonies. 

4. They struggled long with the hardships and difficulties 
incident to all new establishments on barbarous shores, remote 
from civilized society, and from the means of procuring aid in 
supplying their wants, and in protecting themselves against 
the hostilities to which they were exposed. They were, at 
times, reduced to great extremities by sickness, disease, and 
want, and by the attacks and depredations of the Indians, 
insomuch that, in some instances, it was resolved to abandon 
the settlement of the country as impracticable. AH these im- 
pediments, however, being gradually overcome, by persever- 
ance, industry, and enterprise, the colonies at last began to 
flourish, and to increase both in wealth and population. 

5. The first grant from the crown ot .hngland, under which 
effectual settlements were made in North America, was dated 
April 10, 1606. By this charter, all the country in America, 
between lat. 34° and 45° N., was called Virginia. But by 
this charter, two companies were constituted ; one called the 
London Company, the other the Plymouth Company. To 
the former was assigned the territory between lat. 34° and 
41° N., called South Virginia ; to the latter, the part of the 
territory lying to the north, called North Virginia. 

6. Some unsuccessful attempts to form a settlement in Vir- 
ginia before this charter was granted, have been already men- 
tioned. The first effectual attempt was made in 1607, by a 
company of 105 adventurers, who came in a vessel commanded 
by Captain Newport. They sailed up the Powhatan or James 
River, built a fort, and commenced a town, which, in honor 
of king James, they called Jamestown. The government of 
the colony was, at first, administered by a council of seven 
persons v ith a president chosen from among their number. 



UNITED STATES. 243 

7. The name of the first president was Wingfield ; but the 
most distinguished member of the council was Captain John 
Smith, who was the second year chosen president, and who 
has been styled the Father of the colony. He had command- 
ed a company of cavalry in the Austrian army, in a war with 
the Turks : had been taken prisoner and sent to Constantino- 
ple as a slave ; from which condition he had extricated him- 
self. He was a man of undaunted courage, romantic dispo- 
sition, and an ardent spirit of enterprise ; and to his superior 
talents, the company were greatly indebted for their success. 

8. The colonists were soon involved in contests with the 
Indians, whose hostilities against the English were not unpro- 
voked, as they had been previously treated by them with cru- 
elty. In 1585, Sir Richard Grenville burnt a whole Indian 
town, and destroyed their corn, in revenge for their stealing a 
silver cup ; and Mr. Lane, the leader of the adventurers left 
by Sir Richard, slew a sachem, and killed and took captive 
several Indians. 

9. The year in which the settlement was commenced, an 
accident happened to Captain Smith, which lent to his history 
the attraction of romance. While engaged in hunting, he was 
taken prisoner by a body of 200 Indians ; but he so charmed 
them by his arts and his valor, that they released him. Soon 
afterwards, he was again taken by another party of 300, who 
carried him in triumph before Powhatan, the greatest chief 
in the region. 

10. The sentence of death was pronounced upon him ; his 
head was placed on a stone, and the savages were about to 
beat out his brains, when Pocahontas, the favorite daughter 
of the chief, who was only about 12 years of age, after having 
in vain implored mercy for him, rushed forward, and placing 
her head upon that of the captive, appeared determined to 
share his fate. Powhatan relented, and set the prisoner free. 

11. Two years afterwards (1609), Pocahontas gave infor- 
mation to captain Smith of a plot formed by the Indians for 
the destruction of the colony, which was, by this means, pre- 
vented. This extraordinary Indian female was afterwards 
married, with the consent of her father, to Mr. JRolfc, a re- 
spectable young planter. Their nuptials were celebrated with 
great pomp, and Pocahontas was highly useful in preserving 
peace between the colonists and Indians. She accompanied 
her husband to England : was instructed in the Christian 
religion, and baptized She died soon after her return to 
Amnrica ; at the age of about 22, leaving one son, from 



244 UNITED STATES. 

whom are sprung some of the most respectable families lis 
Virginia. 

12. During the first year, the colonists suffered severely by 
the scarcity and badness of provisions ; diseases were in con- 
sequence introduced, which, in a few months, swept away 
one half of their number. But others were added by new 
arrivals, so that, at the end of the year, they amounted to 200. 

13. In the latter part of the year 1609, captain Smith, at 
once the shield and sword of the colony, returned to England. 
Soon after his departure, the company was reduced to the 
greatest extremities. A party of 30 men, under Captain 
Ratcliffe, were all slain by the Indians ; and in consequence 
of a waste of provisions, a most distressing famine prevailed, 
which was known, for many years afterwards, by the name of 
the starving time. 

14. So dreadful was its effect, that in the space of 6 months, 
the colonists were reduced from nearly 500 to 60. This small 
remainder, being exceedingly enfeebled and disheartened, re- 
solved to abandon the settlement, and return to England ; and 
for this purpose they had actually embarked ; but meeting with 
Lord Delaware, who had been appointed governor, under a 
new charter, with 150 men, and a large supply of provisions, 
they were induced to remain ; and the affairs of the company 
soon began to assume a more auspicious appearance. 

15. At the expiration of 12 years from the first settlement, 
there remained only about 600 persons ; but during the year 
1619, the number was increased by the arrival of J 1 ships, 
bringing 1216 new settlers. The planters were mostly ad- 
venturers, destitute of families, and came with the hope of 
obtaining wealth, intending eventually to return ; but with a 
view to make their residence permanent, and attach them to 
the country, an expedient was devised for supplying them with 
wives ; and for this purpose, in the years 1620 and 1621, 150 
unmarried females, " young and uncorrupt," were sent over 
from England, to be sold to such as were inclined to purchase. 
The price of a wife, at first, was 100 pounds of tobacco ; but 
as the number for sale decreased, the price was raised to 150 
pounds ; the tobacco being valued at three shillings a pound. 
About the same time, 20 negroes were carried to Virginia in 
a Dutch vessel, and sold for slaves. This was the commence- 
ment, in English America, of the unhappy system of slavery. 

16. The colonists having turned their attention to agricul- 
ture, particularly to the cultivation of tobacco, and their num- 
bers being increased yearly by the arrival of new emigrants,, 



UNITE!} STATES. 245 

began to enjoy a degree of prosperity, when, in 1622, they 
experienced a stroke which came near proving fatal. Ope- 
cancanough, the successor of Powhatan, concerted a plan for 
the destruction of the settlement ; and in so artful a manner 
was the plot devised, that it might have been effectually ac- 
complished, if a large part of the colonists had not been in- 
formed of it a few hours before the time appointed for its 
execution. The Indians, notwithstanding, succeeded in put- 
ting to death, almost instantaneously, 347 persons. A war of 
extermination followed this massacre ; not long afterwards, 
another distressing famine ; and in 1624, of 9,000 persons who 
had been sent from England, only 1,800 existed in the colony. 
But its severe losses were soon repaired by new arrivals. 

17. The colony suffered by restrictions on its trade and by 
the arbitrary government of Sir John Hawcy ; but in 1639, 
Sir William Berkeley, a man of superior talents, was appointed 
governor ; and during his administration, which lasted, except 
during the protectorate of Cromwell, nearly 40 years, it was 
generally prosperous. The restrictions, however, imposed 
upon its trade by Charles II., occasioned discontents ; and, 
in 1676, near the end of Berkeley's administration, gave rise 
to an insurrection, memorable in the history of Virginia, and 
known by the name of Bacon's Rebellion, so called from its 
leader. Many parts of the colony were given up to pillage ; 
Jamestown was burnt; and all the horrors of a civil war were 
felt for a time, till at last the rebellion was terminated by the 
death of Bacon. 

18. The population, in 1660, amounted to about 30,000, 
and in the 28 succeeding years, the number was doubled. 
The first adventurers came out with the hope of acquiring 
wealth by the discovery of the precious metals ; and the ships 
in which they arrived, were sent back, one of them loaded by 
the miners with a glittering earth, which they vainly hoped 
contained gold; the other, loaded with cedar. In about 1616, 
the cultivation of tobacco was commenced, which soon became 
the chief object of attention with the colonists, and constituted 
the principal part of their property. It formed the medium of 
trade, and was received by the government in the payment of 
taxes. 

19. In 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the service 
of the Dutch, on a voyage in quest of a north-west passage to 
India, discovered the noble river which bears his name. The 
firs£ permanent settlements were made by Dutch adventurers, 

21* 



246 UNITED STATES, 

who erected two forts, in or about the year 1614, one at Al- 
bany, the other on Manhattan island, where the city of New 
York now stands. The country was called New Netherlands ; 
and the settlement on Manhattan island was named New Am- 
sterdam, which names they retained till the conquest of the 
country by the English. 

20. While in the possession of the Dutch, the government 
of the colony was administered by three successive governors, 
namely, Van Twitter, Kieft, and StuyvesanL The extension 
of the English settlements gave rise to misunderstandings, and 
the Dutch governors were engaged in a series of disputes and 
contests. 

21. In 1664, Charles II. of England, being then at war 
with the Dutch, granted the country to his brother the Duke 
of York : governor Stuyvesant was compelled to capitulate to 
an English force, under Colonel Nicholls ; the whole territory 
became subject to the British crown, and in honor of the duke, 
the country and city were named New York. 

22. The Plymouth Company, to whom the country of North 
Virginia was assigned, commenced a small settlement on the 
river Sagadahoc or Kennebec, in 1607, the same year in which 
Jamestown was founded ; but it was soon abandoned. In 
1614, Captain Smith, having visited the country, and exam- 
ined its shores and harbors, on his return to England, con- 
structed a map of it, which he presented to prince Charles, 
who changed its name from North Virginia to New England ; 
and a patent was granted, by king James, in 1620, to the 
Duke of Lenox, Fejdinando Gorges, and others, styled " the 
Council of Plymouth in the county of Devon, for settling and 
governing New England." This patent granted to them the 
country extending from lat. 40° to 48° N. ; and it was the 
foundation of the subsequent grants of the several parts of the 
territory. 

23. During the year in which this patent was granted, the 
first (permanent settlement was commenced in New England, 
at Plymouth, in Massachusetts, by 101 Puritans, a class of 
dissenters from the church of England, who were now begin- 
ning to become numerous, and who were called Puritans, 
because they were desirous of a purer form of discipline and 
worship. This small colony formed a part of the congregation 
of John Robinson, who is regarded as the founder of the de- 
nomination of Independents or Congregationalists. 

24. Being driven from England by persecution, several years 
before, the congregation, together with their minister, had fled 



UNITED STATES. 247 

to Holland ; but a part of them were, at length, induced to 
seek an asjlum, where they might enjoy religious liberty, in 
the wilds of America. The principle of religious toleration 
was not, at this period, understood or practised by any denom- 
ination of Christians. The Puritans were severely persecuted 
by the church of England ; but their own principles, also, 
were intolerant ; and in their turn, they persecuted those who 
differed from them. 

25. The colonists sailed, on the 6th of September, from 
Plymouth in England, in the Mayflower, for Hudson's river ; 
but the master of the vessel, influenced by bribery, carried 
them farther to the north ; and the first land which they dis- 
covered was Cape Cod. They arrived on the coast in No- 
vember ; and as they had not determined on the place for 
their settlement, parties were despatched to explore the coun- 
try, who, after incredible suffering from the severity of the 
weather, found a harbor. Here they landed, December 22d, 
1620, and began to build a town, which they called Plymouth^ 
from the name of the town which they last left in England. 

26. The difficulties and sufferings which they had to en- 
counter were sufficient to dishearten men of ordinary resolu- 
tion. Cast upon an unknown and barbarous coast, in a severe 
climate, and at an inclement season ; worn down with their 
long voyage, excessive fatigue, the severity of the weather, 
and the want of comfortable provisions and habitations, they 
were, soon after their arrival, visited with distressing sickness, 
and in three months, reduced to about one half of their origi- 
nal number. The sickness was so general, that, at some 
times, there were only 6 or 7 well persons in the company. 

27. They instituted a republican form of government, and 
chose John Carver for their first governor, who, dying in 1621, 
was succeeded by William Bradford. The governor, who 
was chosen annually, had at first but one assistant : afterwards 
five ; and the number was, at length, increased to seven. On 
the opening of the spring, they sowed barley and peas, which 
produced but an indifferent crop. They were assisted in 
planting and dressing Indian corn or maize, which they had 
never before seen, by Squanto, a friendly Indian : this afford- 
ed them a great part of their subsistence ; and it has ever 
since been a staple production of the country. For several 
years, the whole property of the settlers was held in common. 

28. In order to protect themselves against the hostilities of 
the Indians, they formed a military organization, and Miles 
Staniish was chosen their captain. — In March, 1621, they 



248 UNITED STATES. 

were visited by Samoset, a sagamore or petty sachem, who 
addressed them with the friendly salutation of " Welcome, 
Englishmen ; Welcome, Englishmen." From him they ob- 
tained important information respecting the country, and 
learned that, not long before, a mortal pestilence had swept 
off almost all the Indians in the vicinity. By his assistance 
they entered into a treaty of peace and friendship with Massa- 
soit, sachem of the Wampanoags, who was the most powerful 
Indian chief in the region, and from whom the name of Mas- 
sachusetts is derived. This treaty, which was of great impor- 
tance to the colony, was strictly observed till the commence- 
ment of Philip's war, a period of 54 years. 

29. During subsequent years, there were numerous arrivals 
of other persons from England, whose character and views 
were similar to those of the first settlers at Plymouth. In 
1628, the foundation was laid of the colony of Massachusetts 
Bay , by a company of adventurers under John Endicott, who 
formed a settlement at Naumkeag, now Salem : and in 1630, 
1500 persons under John Winthrop, who was appointed gov- 
ernor, arrived at Charhstown, and soon afterwards commen- 
ced the settlement of Boston and other towns in the vicinity. 

30. In 1623, the settlement of New Hampshire was com- 
menced at Dover and Portsmouth, by persons sent out by 
John Mason and Ferdinando Gorges, .to whom the country 
had been granted. The former became afterwards sole pro- 
prietor of a large part of the country, and the claims of his 
heirs furnished a fruitful source of contention. The settle- 
ments were annexed to Massachusetts in 1641, and so con- 
tinued till 1679, when a separate government was instituted 
for New Hampshire. 

31. In 1635, the settlement of the colony of Connecticut 
was begun, at Windsor and Wethersjield, by about 60 persons 
from Massachusetts ; and in 1638, the colony of New Haven 
was commenced by Theophilus Eaton, John Davenport, and 
others. These colonies were united into one in 1665. 

32. The settlement of Rhode Island was commenced in 
1636, at Providence, by Roger Williams, a minister of the 
gospel, who had been banished from Massachusetts on ac- 
count of his religious opinions. 

33. As the quiet enjoyment of religious liberty was the 
leading cause of the formation of these settlements, the found- 
ers of them were particularly solicitous with regard to the 
support and encouragement of religion. Among the early 
settlers, there were many men of talents and liberal educa- 



UNITED STATES. 249 

tion ; and a wilderness has probably never been planted by a 
body of men, who were more mindful of the interests of learn- 
ing, or moie attentive to the establishment of schools. In 
ten years after the first settlement of Massachusetts Bay, Har- 
vard College was founded at Cambridge. 

34. The colonists were possessed of many excellent traits 
of character. Their enterprise and industry, their love of 
liberty, their attention to education, their morality and piety, 
entitle them to respect and admiration. They were not, how- 
ever, without faults, some of which were vices of the age ; others 
belonged more particularly to themselves. 

35. With regard to differences in religious opinions, their 
views were narrow and intolerant. In some instances, it was 
enacted, that none except members of the church should have 
a right to vote at elections, or should be eligible to any office. 
Their rigid principles also appear in the severity with which 
they punished many offences, which are not now considered 
as properly coming under the cognizance of the civil law. 
The close inspection which they practised with regard to every 
man's principles and conduct, secured for many years very 
strict morals, and great uniformity of doctrines. But it was 
not possible to prevent differences of opinion ; and when these 
arose, the severity with which those were treated who avowed 
unpopular sentiments, occasioned many heart-burnings and 
mutual reproaches. 

36. The colonists landed in the country without having 
obtained the consent of the natives ; yet the principle upon 
which they proceeded was, before taking possession of the 
Lands, to procure them by a regular purchase of the Indians,, 
who were considered as the rightful owners of the soil. The 
treatment, however, which the Indians in America had gen- 
erally received from European adventurers, had given them 
too much reason to distrust the friendly dispositions of white 
men ; and it must be acknowledged, that the New England 
colonists, in their proceedings with regard to this injured peo- 
ple, were not always pacific or just. 

37. In the third year after the formation of the settlement 
at Plymouth, Captain Standish, at the head of a small party ,, 
killed a number of Indians who had manifested hostile inten- 
tions. When an account of this transaction was sent to Mr. 
Robinson, in Holland, in his next letter to the governor y he 
exclaimed) in a manner that does honor to his feelings, "Oh 
that you had converted some, before you had killed any L" 



250 UNITED STATES. 

The settlers at Plymouth and in Massachusetts Bay, however, 
had but little trouble with the Indians for many years. But 
the colony of Connecticut, in 1637, two years after it was first 
planted, was engaged in a severe contest with the Pequods, a 
warlike tribe, inhabiting a district now forming the south-east 
part of that state. The Pequods had previously made depre- 
dations on the infant settlement, and killed several individuals. 
The Indians were entirely defeated by the colonists, under 
Captain Mason, with the loss of between 600 and 700 killed 
and taken prisoners, being about two thirds of their whole 
number ; and 70 of their wigwams were also burnt. Of the 
English, only 2 were killed, and 16 wounded. 

38. Not long after this contest, the colonists had strong 
apprehensions of a general combination of the Indians for 
extirpating them ; the proceedings of the Dutch and the 
French also created alarm. In order, therefore, to promote 
their security and welfare, the four colonies of Massachusetts 
Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, united in a 
confederacy, in 1643, by the name of the United Colonies of 
New England. Each one elected two delegates, who were 
to assemble by rotation, in the different colonies, annually, or 
oftener if necessary. This union, which subsisted a little 
more than 40 years, till the colonies were deprived of their 
charters by James II., was of great service in promoting har- 
mony among themselves, and increasing their means of de- 
fence. In it we may see the germ of that grand confederacy 
which led to American Independence. 

39. The most general and destructive Indian war in which 
the colonies were ever involved, took place in 1675 and 1676, 
with Philip, king or sachem of the Wampanoags, and son of 
Massasoit, whose principal residence was at Mount Hope, in 
Rhode Island. He was the most formidable enemy that the 
colonists had ever known ; a man of great talents and undaunt- 
ed courage, a shrewd politician, and a great warrior. 

40. The Indian tribes, perceiving the English settlements 
extending in every direction, determined to make one great 
and combined effort, to avoid the loss of their hunting grounds, 
their inheritance, their liberty and independence. An exten- 
sive combination was accordingly formed among the different 
tribes, for the purpose of the total destruction of the colonies, 
and of this combination Philip was the leader. 

41. A more immediate cause of the war was the circum- 
stance that Sausaman, a Christian Indian, gave information 
to the colonists of the plot which had been formed against 



UNITED STATES. 25j 

them, for which three Indians, at the instigation of Philip, 
murdered him. The murderers were tried and executed by 
the English. In order to avenge their death, Philip soon 
commenced his hostile attacks, and by his agents, drew into 
the contest most of the tribes in New England. 

42. The Indians had now acquired, in some degree, the 
use of fire-arms. Hostilities were conducted with great spirit 
and energy on both sides, and with the usual ferocity of savage 
warfare. The greatest battle, not only during this contest, but 
in the early history of the country, is known by the name of 
the Swamp Fight, which took place in December, 1675, in 
the Narraganset country, at the Indian fortress, in a large 
swamp situated in the western part of what is now the town- 
ship of South Kingston. The English, who were commanded 
by Josiah Winslow, governor of Plymouth, obtained a great 
victory, yet with the loss of 230 men killed and wounded ; and 
among their slain were six brave captains. About 1,000 of 
the Indians are supposed to have perished, besides many 
women and children ; and 500 or 600 of their wigwams were 
burnt. 

43. The Indians never entirely recovered from the effect 
of this defeat. They were not, however, subdued, but con- 
tinued their depredations by massacring the inhabitants, and 
burning the towns. At length, in August, 1676, the great 
warrior Philip was shot by an Indian whom he had offended, 
and who joined a party under the famous Captain Benjamin 
Church. This was a fatal stroke to the power of the Aborig- 
ines, and excited the liveliest joy and exultation in the col- 
onies. Most of the hostile Indians soon afterwards submitted, 
or retreated from the country. After the termination of this 
conflict, the principal sufferings which the New England colo- 
nies endured from the hostilities of the Indians, took place 
during the wars with the French, who employed the savages 
as auxiliaries. 

44. This war afflicted almost every family in New England 
with the most painful privations. The whole English popula- 
tion was computed, at this time, to amount to about 60,000 ; 
of which nearly 600 men, comprising a considerable part of 
the strength of the country, fell during the contest, besides 
many women and children ; and others were led into a miser- 
able captivity. About 600 buildings, mostly dweiling-houses, 
were consumed ; 12 or 13 towns were destroyed, many others 
damaged, and many cattle killed. The country was in deep 
mourning, there being scarcely a family or an individual, who 
had no' lost either a relative or a friend. 



252 UNITED STATES. 

45. The founder of Maryland was Sir George Calvert, 
Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, and an eminent states- 
man, who had been secretary to James I. He first visited 
Virginia with a view to form a settlement of Catholics ; but 
meeting there with an unwelcome reception, he fixed his at- 
tention on the territory to the north of the Potomac, and ob- 
tained a grant of it from Charles I. From the queen of 
Charles, Henrietta Maria, the country was named Maryland. 
But before the patent was completed, Sir George died, and 
the grant was given to his eldest son, Cecilius, who succeeded 
to his titles, and for upwards of 40 years directed the affairs 
of the colony, displaying an enlightened understanding and a 
benevolent heart. 

46. Leonard Calvert, brother to Cecilius, was appointed 
the first governor ; and he, together with about 200 persons, 
commenced the settlement of the town of St. Mary's, in 1634. 
The leading features of the policy adopted in this colony, do 
honor to the founders. Universal toleration of religion was 
established, and a system of equity and humanity was practised 
with regard to the Indian tribes. 

47. In 1681, the celebrated William Penn obtained of 
Charles II. a grant of the tract of country, afterwards named 
from him Pennsylvania. It was granted to him in consider- 
ation of debts due from the crown of England for services per- 
formed by his father, admiral Penn. In lo32, he arrived in 
the country, accompanied by about 2,000 associates, who 
were, most of them, like himself, of the denomination of 
Fnrrxh or Quakers ; and in the next year he laid out the 
plan of the city of Philadelphia. 

48. This great man and wise legislator made civil and re- 
ligious liberty the basis of all his institutions. Christians of 
all denominations might not only live unmolested, but have a 
share in the government. In his intercourse with the Indians, 
he was governed by the strictest principles of equity and hu- 
manity, treating them as men and brethren, possessing the 
same rights as white men. Soon after his arrival, he sum- 
moned them to a council, and obtained of them, by fair pur- 
chase, a cession of as much land as his exigencies required. 

49. The same course was pursued by his followers ; the 
treaties were preserved inviolate on both sides ; and a good 
understanding remained uninterrupted for more than 70 years. 
It was seen by mankind, with surprise, that kindness and 
good faith we-e a better protection than the sword, even to a 



UNITED STATES. 258 

settlement planted among savages ; and that this excellent 
man, by his humane, equitable, and pacific policy, without 
any warlike preparations or means of defence, secured to his 
colony peace, prosperity, and safety, far more effectually than 
Lycurgus secured the same advantages to his country, by 
rendering the Spartans a nation of soldiers. 

50. No one of the other colonies made so rapid advances 
in population and prosperity as this. The fertility of the soil, 
the salubrity of the climate, the uninterrupted peace with the 
natives, and the enjoyment of civil and religious liberty, held 
out inducements to the Quakers, and other persecuted and op- 
pressed people in Europe, to seek an asylum in Pennsylvania. 

51. In the original foundation of Rhode Island, by Roger 
Williams ; of Maryland, by Lord Baltimore ; and on a more 
extended scale, of Pennsylvania, by William Penn, the free 
toleration of religion was recognized ; and these were the first 
civil communities in which this liberal and enlightened prin- 
ciple was legally established and acted upon. The inhabitants 
of the New England colonies, with the exception of Rhode 
Island, in the early ages of their history, as has already been 
mentioned, persecuted those who differed from them with 
regard to religion ; and the inhabitants of Virginia harassed 
those who dissented from the church of England. 



SECTION II. 

Oppressive Measures relating to the Colonies : French Wars ; 
Capture of Louisburg ; Expedition against New England ; 
Conquest of Canada. — From A. D. 1676 to 1763. 

1. From the time of the foundation of the first permanent 
English settlement in North America, the throne of England 
had been occupied by sovereigns' of the Stuart Family, the 
influence of whose arbitrary principles tended to increase the 
number of emigrants from Great Britain to America ; but this 
influence was also felt on this side of the Atlantic, as well as 
on the other. The colonies were repeatedly alarmed by the 
danger of losing their charters, which were at last wrested from 
them ; and several of the governors appointed by the crown 
occasioned great uneasiness by their oppressive measures. 

2. A number of Englishmen, after having visited the colo- 
nies, and become, from different reasons, hostile to them, on 

22 



254 UNITED STATES. 

their return to Great Britain, prejudiced the king and council 
against them. Of these no one so much distinguished him- 
self as Edward Randolph, who was sent over to America by 
Charles II., in 1676, and who, according to his own account, 
crossed the Atlantic 16 times in 9 years, chiefly for the pur- 
pose of destroying the liberties of New England. This pur- 
ine he finally accomplished, and a writ was issued against 
the several charters, in 1683. 

3. Sir Edmund Andros, who had been for some time gov- 
ernor of New York, was appointed by James II. governor also 
of New England. He arrived in Boston, in 1686, and sum- 
moned the colonies to surrender their charters. The charter 
of Massachusetts was given up, but that of Connecticut was 
concealed, by captain Wadsworth, in the hollow of an oak in 
Hartford. Sir Edmund began with high professions of his 
good intentions ; but he soon threw off the mask, governed 
in the most oppressive manner, and attempted to render him- 
self as despotic in America, as the king was disposed to be in 
England. 

4. Happily, however, the reign of tyranny was of short du- 
ration : the arbitrary proceedings of James II. had rendered 
him so odious, that he was compelled to flee from his king- 
dom. The news of the Revolution of 1688, in England, and 
the accession of William and Mary to the throne, was receiv- 
ed, in this country, with ecstasy, and was regarded as an 
event which brought deliverance from despotism to America, 
as well as to Great Britain. The inhabitants of Boston seized 
Sir Edmund, together with Randolph and about 50 others, 
and put them in close confinement, where they were kept till 
the leaders were ordered back to England for trial. Connec- 
ticut and Rhode Island immediately resumed their charters, 
and reestablished their former government. 

5. The people of Massachusetts Bay petitioned the king for 
a restoration of their charter. This was, however, refused ; 
but a new charter, less favorable to liberty than the old one, 
was granted, in 1692, by which the colonies of Massachusetts 
Bay and Plymouth were united into one, by the name of Mas- 
sachusetts; to which were also annexed the provinces of Maine 
and Nova Scotia. 

6. Under the old charter, the governor, together with all the 
magistrates and officers of state, was chosen annually by the 
general assembly, the members of which and the assistants of 
the governor were elected by the freemen of the colony. By 
the new charter, the appointment of the governor, lieutenant- 



UNITED STATES. 255 

governor, secretary, and the officers of the admiralty, was 
taken from the colonists, and was vested in the crown. The 
right of choosing representatives was the only privilege which 
was allowed to the people. In order to render the charter 
more acceptable, the king appointed Sir William Phips, a 
native of Maine, the first governor. 

7. Scarcely had the colonies emerged from one scene of 
trouble, before they were involved in another. The Revolu- 
tion in England restored, in a great measure, their liberties ; 
but it soon subjected them to the evils of war with the French 
and the Indians. The war, during the reign of William and 
Mary, lasted from 1690 to the peace of Ryswick, in 1697 ; 
that during the reign of queen Anne, from 1702 to the peace 
of Utrecht, in 1713. 

8. During the 25 years preceding the peace of Utrecht, the 
country had enjoyed only 4 or 5 years of exemption from war. 
For several years, not less than a fifth part of the inhabitants, 
able to bear arms, were in actual service ; and sometimes one 
half of the militia. Those who were not in service, were obli- 
ged to guard their fields and families at home, and were sub- 
ject to constant alarms. The resources of the country were 
greatly diminished ; the aspect of affairs gloomy ; many fields 
untilled ; extensive tracts desolated ; the growth of the colo- 
nies exceedingly checked ; their frontiers laid waste ; several 
towns burnt ; and the greatest barbarities perpetrated. 

9. It has been computed that, during these wars, in the 
colonies of New England and New York, as many as 8,000 
young men, the flower of the country, fell by the sword of the 
enemy, or by diseases contracted in the public service. Most 
of the families were in mourning for the loss of friends, who 
were either killed or led into a miserable captivity. 

10. After the peace of Utrecht, the colonies enjoyed, for 
some years, a state of comparative tranquillity. But in 1744, 
another war broke out between Great Britain and France, of 
which the effects were felt in America, and which was here 
rendered memorable, chiefly by the capture of Louishurg, on 
the island of Cape Breton, by troops from New England, under 
the command of general Sir William Pepperell. Louisburg 
had been fortified by the French at a vast expense, and was a 
place of such immense strength, as to be called the Dunkirk 
or Gibraltar of America ; and the reduction of it was deemed 
an object of the highest importance to New England. 



256 UNITED STATES. 

11. The troops under the command of general Pepperell, 
amounting to 4,070, the greater part from Massachusetts, 
arrived at Canso, on the 4th of April, 1745, and in three 
weeks after, were joined by commodore Warren, vvith four 
ships from England. The siege was soon after commenced, 
and continued till the 16th of June, when Louisburg, together 
with the island of Cape Breton, was surrendered by the French 
commander. 

12. The news of this brilliant achievement occasioned great 
exultation in the colonies, and encouraged them to attempt 
the conquest of all the French possessions in North America. 
It also roused the government of France to seek revenge ; and 
in 1746, an armament under the Duke cVAnville, was sent to 
America, consisting of 11 ships of the line, and 30 smaller 
vessels of war, besides transports, with upwards of 3,000 regu- 
lar troops, and 40,000 stands of arms for the use of the Cana- 
dians and Indians. The object of this armament, which was 
the most formidable that had ever been sent to North America, 
was to recover Louisburg, and to distress, if not to conquer, 
New England. 

13. The first intelligence of the sailing of this fleet, filled 
the colonists with consternation ; but they were delivered from 
their fears in a most extraordinary and providential manner. 
The fleet had a long and disastrous passage, and sustained so 
great damages by storms, and losses by shipwrecks, that on its 
arrival, the force was reduced more than one half. A mortal 
sickness prevailed among the troops, which carried off a great 
part of them : and the two principal commanders died sud- 
denly, one or both of them by suicide, in a fit of despair. 

14. The remaining ships returned singly to France, with- 
out having accomplished a single object of the expedition ; and 
the whole design against the colonies was frustrated without 
the intervention of human aid. — By the peace of Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle, in 1748, Louisburg was given up to France, to the no 
small mortification of the colonies. 

15. The French, having been the first discoverers of the 
river Mississippi, claimed the country watered by it and its 
tributaries ; and in the succeeding period of peace, they made 
great exertions to connect their colonies of Canada and Louis- 
iana, by extending the line of military posts from Lake Ontario 
to the Ohio, and down that river and the Mississippi, to New 
Orleans. 

16. A company of persons belonging to England and Vir- 
ginia, associated by the name of the Ohio Company, obtained 



UNITED STATES. 257 

from the king a grant of 600,000 acres of land, on and near 
the Ohio, for the purpose of carrying on the fur trade with 
the Indians and settling the country; and they established 
some trading-houses on the river. But as the French claimed 
an exclusive right to this country and its trade, they seized 
some of the traders, and carried them prisoners to Canada. 

17. The Company complained loudly of these aggressions 
on a territory, which had been ceded to it, as a part of Vir- 
ginia; and Robert Dinwiddle, the governor, having laid the 
subject before the assembly of that colony, it was determined 
that it should be demanded, in the name of the king, that the 
French should desist from designs, which were deemed a viola- 
tion of existing treaties. George Washington, then in his 22d 
year, was, in 1753, sent on this service to M. de St. Pierre, the 
French commandant on the Ohio, who stated to Washington, 
that he had acted according to his orders. 

18. The British government, being informed of the designs 
of the French, directed the Americans to oppose them by force 
of arms. A regiment was soon formed, and put under the 
command of Washington, who was appointed colonel. Troops 
were raised throughout the colonies ; naval and land forces 
were sent from England ; and expeditions were, in 1755, sent 
against Nova Scotia, Crown Point, and Niagara. 

19. Another expedition against Fort du Quesne, [now 
Pittsburg] was commanded by general Braddock, who had 
two English regiments, and a body of colonial troops under 
colonel Washington ; the whole amounting to 1,200. Brad- 
dock was an officer of reputation, but neither he nor his Eng- 
lish soldiers knew any thing of savage warfare ; and being 
attacked by a party of French and Indians in ambush, he was 
entirely defeated, and himself slain. Of 85 officers, 64 were 
killed and wounded, and about half of the privates. Wash- 
ington, who had two horses shot under him, and four balls shot 
through his coat, remained unhurt, and led off the remainder of 
the troops. 

20. The expedition against Crown Point was commanded 
by general Johnson, who was met by the French army, under 
the command of Dieskau, on the banks of Lake George. A 
battle ensued, in which Dieskau was repulsed, with the los? 
of 700 or 800 men, and himself mortally wounded ; but no 
attempt was made upon Crown Point. The expedition against 
Niagara and Fort Frontenac, under the command of governor 
Shirley of Massachusetts, was delayed till it became too late 
in the season to effect any thing ; and the campaign closed, 

22* 



258 UNITED STATES. 

without any one of the objects of the three expeditions having 
been attained. 

21. The war, which had been carried on two years without 
any formal proclamation, was at length declared in 1756. The 
Marquis de Montcalm succeeded Dieskau ; and the chief com- 
mand of the English troops was first given to the Earl of 
Loudon, and afterwards to general Ahercrombie. Montcalm 
was an able commander, but the British generals were weak 
and inefficient ; and the campaigns of 1756 and 1757 brought 
reproach both upon them and the British government, and oc- 
casioned chagrin and disappointment in the colonies. But a 
change having taken place in the English ministry, and William 
Pitt (afterwards Lord Chatham) being placed at the head of the 
administration, every thing immediately assumed a new aspect. 

22. This great man, who was popular in America, address- 
ed a circular letter to the colonial governors, assuring them 
that an effectual force should be sent from England, and call- 
ing upon them to raise as large bodies of men as the popula- 
tion would allow. The number of men brought into the ser- 
vice was 50,000, of which 20,000 were raised in America. 
Three expeditions were resolved on ; the first against Louis- 
burg, the second against Ticonderoga, and the third against 
Fort Du Quesne. 

23. In the expedition against Louisburg, the land forces, 
amounting to 14,000, were led by general Amherst, next to 
whom, in command, was general Wolfe; and a large naval 
armament was commanded by admiral Boscaiven. After a 
considerable resistance, the fortress was surrendered, with the 
garrison, consisting of nearly 6,000 men, and a great quantity 
of military stores. This was the severest blow the French 
had received since the commencement of the war. 

24. The attack on Ticonderoga was conducted by general 
Abercrombie, the commander-in-chief; but owing to his in- 
judicious management, he was repulsed, with the loss of about 
2,000 men. A detachment of 3,000 men, under colonel Brad- 
street, took and destroyed Fort Frontenac. The expedition 
against Fort Du Quesne was conducted by general Forbes, 
who took possession of the post, and changed its name to 
Pittsburg. 

25. After the disaster at Ticonderoga, Abercrombie fell 
into contempt ; and the chief command was given to general 
Amherst. The campaign of 1759 had for its object the entire 
conquest of Canada. The British army was divided into 
three parts : uie first division, under Wolfe, was to make an 



UNITED STATES. 259 

attempt on Quebec ; the second, under Amherst, was to attack 
Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and the third, under Pri- 
deaux, was to be directed against the strong hold of Niagara* 

26. On the approach of Amherst, Ticonderoga and Crown 
Point were evacuated. Niagara was besieged, and after a 
severe action, it fell into the hands of the English ; but four 
days before the conquest, general Prideaux was killed. 

27. By the taking of these forts, great advantages were 
gained ; but a far more important and arduous enterprise was 
intrusted to the heroic general Wolfe. This was the reduc- 
tion of Quebec, a place of immense strength, both by nature 
and art, and protected by about 10,000 men, under that able 
and hitherto successful general, Montcalm. But the difficul- 
ties which the English general had to surmount, served only 
to inflame his ardent mind, and his military enthusiasm. 
Having landed his army, consisting of 8,000 men, on the 
island of Orleans, below Quebec, he made some unsuccessful 
attempts to reduce the city. 

23. He then conceived the bold design of scaling, during 
the night, a steep precipice on the north bank of the river, 
and in this way to reach the Heights or Plains of Abraham 
behind the city, where it was least defensible. This he effect- 
ed before Montcalm was aware of his design, and the whole 
army was arrayed on the plains before sunrise. A hot battle 
followed, in which the French were entirely defeated, with. 
the loss of 1,500 men, and their four principal commanders ; 
the English lost 500, together with their two first officers. 
The two great rivals, Wolfe and Montcalm, were both mortally 
wounded before the battle was terminated. 

29. Wolfe, having received a fatal wound, was carried to 
the rear ; where, at his request, he was raised up, that he might 
take a view of the engagement. Faint with the loss of blood, 
and his eyes dimmed by the approach of death, he was roused 
at the words, " They fly, they fly!" "Who fly?" he exclaimed. 
He was told, " The enemy." " Then," said the hero, " I die 
contented ;" and having said this, he expired in the moment 
of victory. — The same military enthusiasm animated Mont- 
calm. Being told that he could not continue more than a few 
hours, he said, " It is so much the better ; I shall not then live 
to see the surrender of Quebec." 

30. This battle was followed by the reduction of the city, 
and ultimately by that of all Canada. By the peace of Paris, 
in 1763, the French northern possessions in America — Can- 
ada Nova Scotia, and the island of Cape Breton — were eon- 



260 UNITED STATES. 

firmed to Britain. The success of this war, joyful as it was 
to England, was still more so to the colonies, who now ex- 
pected a release from the heavy calamities, which they had 
Ions: suffered from hostilities with the French and Indians. 



SECTION III. 

Disputes between Great Britain and the Colonies : Commence- 
ment of Hostilities : Battles of Lexington and Bunker 
Hill: Declaration of Independence. — From A. D. 1763 
to 1776. 

1. The colonists, from the time of the first settlement of 
the country, had been ardently attached to liberty, and ex- 
tremely jealous of any invasion of their rights. The emi- 
grants from England to America had been induced to leave 
their native land principally by the idea that they might escape 
from oppression and arbitrary power, and might enjoy free- 
dom, both civil and religious. They cherished, however, a 
strong attachment to the parent country, always acknowledged 
themselves subjects of the crown of Great Britain, and were 
loyal and faith f ul subjects. 

% Notwithstanding their various embarrassments, the long 
and distressing wars with the Indians and French, and the 
severe restrictions which were imposed by Great Britain upon 
their trade, and which were borne, in some instances, with 
extreme impatience ; yet, amidst these difficulties, the colo- 
nies made rapid progress in wealth and population, and in all 
the arts of civil life ; and at the peace of 1763, they had risen 
to a high state of prosperity. They abounded in spirited and 
active individuals of all denominations. 

3. After the conquest of Canada had freed them from the 
distresses occasioned by war with the French and savages, 
and given them a short interval of repose, troubles assailed 
them from a new and unexpected quarter. The mother 
country began speedily to assert her sovereignty over them, 
and to interfere in their civil concerns, in a manner which 
excited the most serious alarm. 

4. The war which Great Britain had carried on in defence 
of her American possessions, had made a vast addition to her 
national debt, and greatly increased the burdens of her sub- 
ject? ; and a plan of raising a revenue by taxing the colonies, 
was formed by parliament, under pretext that the mother 



UNITED STATES. 261 

country might obtain indemnification for the expenses of 
the war. 

5. But it was maintained, on the other hand, by the colo- 
nies, that if the war had been waged by Great Britain on their 
account, it was because they were useful to her ; that by the 
advantages which she derived from the monopoly of their com- 
merce, she was interested in their defence ; that by the happy 
termination of the war, they derived no benefit which was not 
a source of ultimate profit to the mother country ; and that 
their own exertions had been greater in proportion to their 
ability than hers. They also urged their claim to all the 
rights of English subjects, and maintained that of these rights, 
none was more indisputable than that no subject could be de- 
prived of his property but by his own consent, expressed in 
person or by his representatives. 

6. In the beginning of the year 1764, parliament passed 
an act by which duties were laid on goods imported from such 
West India islands as did not belong to Great Britain ; and 
Mr. Grenvilk, the prime minister, proposed a resolution, 
" that it would be proper to charge certain stamp duties on 
the colonies ;" but postponed the consideration of that subject 
to a future session. These proceedings occasioned great 
uneasiness and alarm, and were remonstrated against by the 
colonies. 

7. The system, however, was persisted in by parliament, 
and early in the next year, the Stamp Act was passed, laying 
a duty on all paper used for instruments of writing, as deeds, 
notes, &/C, and declaring writings on unstamped materials to 
be null and void. The news of this measure caused a great 
sensation throughout the country. The assembly of Virginia, 
being in session when the information arrived, first declared 
its opposition to the act by a number of spirited resolutions, 
which were brought forward by Patrick Henry ; and Mas- 
sachusetts, before what had been done in Virginia was known, 
adopted measures to procure a combined opposition to the 
offensive laws, and in this important crisis, gave the tone to 
the subsequent proceedings. In all the colonies, however, a 
determined spirit of resistance was soon manifested. 

8. When the news of the stamp act arrived at Boston, the 
bells were muffled, and rung a funeral peal. The crown 
officers were insulted ; their houses broken open or demolish- 
ed ; and among other outrages, the populace destroyed a valu- 
able collection of original papers belonging to governor Hutch- 
inson, and relating to the history of America. A similar 



$62 UNITED STATES. 

spirit was manifested in the other colonies ; and in New York, 
the act was hawked about the streets with a Death's head 
affixed to it, and styled " The Folly of England, and the Ruin 
of America." The merchants also associated, and agreed to 
a resolution not to import any more goods from Great Britain, 
until the act should be repealed. 

9. A Colonial Congress, appointed by nine of the colonies, 
assembled, in 1765, at New York, and published a declaration 
of their rights and their grievances, insisting particularly on 
the right of exclusively taxing themselves, and complaining 
loudly of the stamp act. The merchants of Boston, New 
York, and Philadelphia, entered into an agreement not to 
import or sell any British goods, so long as the offensive 
measure should be continued. So general was the opposition, 
that the stamp officers, in all the colonies, were compelled to 
resign ; and the act was never executed. A change took 
place in the British cabinet, and through the exertions of Mr. 
Pitt, Lord Camden, and others, the stamp act was repealed 
in March, 1766 ; but the repeal was preceded by a declara- 
tion of parliament, " that they had, and of right ought to 
have, power to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." 

10. The favorite project of the British ministry of taxing 
America, was still persisted in ; and in June, 1767, an act 
was passed by parliament imposing a duty on tea, paper, glass, 
and painters* colors. To render the act effectual, a custom- 
house was established in Boston, with a board of commissioners 
for the colonies ; and in September, 1768, two British regi- 
ments arrived in the town. Another most arbitrary measure 
of parliament, which gave great offence, was a proposition 
that offenders in Massachusetts should be sent to England 
for trial. 

11. The feelings of the Americans were now greatly exas- 
perated. To a free and high-spirited people, the presence of 
an insolent soWiery, sent with a design to intimidate them, 
could not but be extremely odious and provoking. The causes 
of irritation were numerous ; quarrels daily occurred between 
the soldiers and the populace ; and on' the 5th of March, 1770, 
an affray took place between a detachment of troops under 
captain Preston, and some of the inhabitants of Boston, in 
which three of the latter were killed, and five dangerously 
wounded. The funeral of the deceased was conducted with 
great pomp and ceremony, expressive of the public grief and 
indignation. After the feelings of the people had, in some 
meisure, subsided, captain Preston and his soldiers were 



UNITED STATES. 263 

brought to trial before a court of the province, and a jury of 
the neighborhood. They had for their counsel John Adams 
and Josiah Quincy, two leaders of the popular party, and were 
all acquitted, except two, who were convicted of manslaughter. 

12. During this year (1770) Lord North was appointed 
prime minister of England, and all the duties were repealed 
except the one of three pence per pound on tea. By this the 
British ministry intended to establish their right to raise a 
revenue in the colonies ; but the Americans were determined 
to resist the principle of taxation in every shape. — The years 
of 1771 and 1772 were not distinguished by any important 
event. — In 1773, the inhabitants of New York and Philadel- 
phia returned to England the tea ships, which were sent to 
those cities ; but the people of Boston having failed in their 
attempts to carry into effect the same measure, about twenty 
persons, disguised like Indians, went on board the vessels, 
and threw the tea, consisting of 342 chests, into the harbor. 

13. — (1774.) — In consequence of these measures, parlia- 
ment passed further hostile acts ; and Boston, being regarded 
as the chief seat of rebellion, was selected as an object of 
vengeance. By one of the acts, called the "Boston Port 
Bill" all intercourse by water with that town was prohibited ; 
the government and public officers were removed to Salem ; 
and power was given to the governor to send persons charged 
with high treason to be tried in Britain. A great part of the 
inhabitants of Boston were suddenly deprived of the means of 
subsistence ; but their sufferings were relieved by contribu- 
tions forwarded from different parts. All these vindictive 
measures only served more firmly to unite the Americans in 
their resistance to the mother country. 

14. In May, General Gage, the commander-in-chief of the 
British forces in North America, arrived in Boston, commis- 
sioned as governor of Massachusetts; and shortly after two 
more regiments landed with artillery and military stores ; 
events which indicated the determination of the British 
government to reduce the colonies to submission by force of 
arms. 

15. When the Americans saw, by these proceedings, that 
a reconciliation was no longer to be expected, and that their 
rights were to be defended by an appeal to force, they took 
measures to prepare themselves for the contest. A committee 
of correspondence was formed by distinguished men in Mas- 
sachusetts, who framed an agreement, called a Solemn League 
and Covenant, by which they determined to suspend all in- 



264 UNITED STATES. 

tercourse with Great Britain, until their rights should be re- 
stored. 

16. The general court of Massachusetts resolved that a 
congress of the colonies was necessary : they also enrolled a 
body of men to be prepared for marching at a minute's notice, 
and therefore called minute-men: appointed five general offi- 
cers to command them ; formed a committee of safety ; and 
took measures to collect military stores at Concord and Wor- 
cester. 

17. The plan for assembling a Congress was speedily adopt- 
ed by all the colonies, except Georgia ; and on the 5th of 
September, the delegates met at Philadelphia. This body, 
generally known by the name of the Continental Congress, 
and of which Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, was chosen pres- 
ident, was composed of 55 members, most of whom were men 
of distinguished character and talents. They published a 
declaration of the rights of the colonies ; agreed to suspend 
all commercial intercourse with Great Britain ; and drew up 
an address to the king, another to the people of Great Britain, 
and a third to the colonies. These able state papers were 
highly applauded by Lord Chatham in the British parliament, 

18. The disparity between the two contending parties was 
immense. Great Britain was the first maritime power in the 
world, and possessed great wealth, vast resources, well-disci- 
plined armies, and experienced and able military and naval 
commanders. The colonies possessed none of these advan- 
tages, and had no general government to control the contend- 
ing interests of the different parts. They were almost entirely 
destitute of experienced officers, of disciplined troops, of arms 
and munitions of war, of armed ships, and of revenue. Their 
want of these essential articles, particularly of regular and 
disciplined troops, of good arms and ammunition, and more 
especially of money, embarrassed all their operations, during 
the continuance of the war. Their resolution to engage in 
the unequal contest, was regarded in England with the utmost 
contempt ; and it was confidently expected, by the British 
ministry, that their efforts would be speedily and easily crushed. 

19. — (1775.) — When the proceedings of the American con- 
gress were laid before parliament, a joint address of both houses 
was presented to the king, declaring that a rebellion actually 
existed in Massachusetts, and beseeching his majesty to sup- 
press it. In the winter and spring of 1775, the army in Boston 
was increased to 10,000, which number was deemed sufficient 
to reduce the rebellious colonies to submission. 



UNITED STATES. 265 

£0. Soon after, a bill was brought forward in parliament by 
Lord North, which he termed a conciliator)/ proposition, the 
purport of which was, that when any colony should make pro- 
vision for contributing its proportion to the common defence, 
and make such provision also for the support of its civil gov- 
ernment, as should be approved by his majesty and the parlia- 
ment, the British government would abstain from taxing such 
colony, and confine itself to commercial regulations. The 
design of this proposition was to unite Great Britain, and 
divide America ; but it was universally rejected by the colo- 
nies, and by the congress assembled at Philadelphia. It was 
derided also by the friends of America in parliament as nu- 
gatory, since it was the right, not the mode, of taxation, 
which the colonies disputed. 

21. In February, general Gage sent a party of troops to 
Salem, to seize some cannon which had been lodged there ; 
but finding, on their arrival, that the cannon had been remov- 
ed, they marched back unmolested. In April, he sent another 
body of troops, under colonel Smith and major Pitcairn, to 
seize some military stores at Concord. The march, though 
in the night, was discovered ; and early in the morning of the 
19th of the month, as they passed through Lexington, about 
70 men, belonging to the minute company of that town, were 
found on the green or common, under arms. Major Pitcairn, 
riding up to them, called out, " Disperse, disperse, you rebels!" 
Not being obeyed, he discharged his pistol, and ordered his 
troops to fire. Eight Americans were killed, and several 
wounded. Thus began the sanguinary contest, which issued 
in the establishment of American Independence. 

22. Having dispersed the militia at Lexington, the British 
troops proceeded to Concord, and destroyed some military 
stores collected in that town. On their return, the passage 
of a bridge over Concord river was disputed ; a skirmish en- 
sued, which was attended with some loss on both sides. The 
people of the neighborhood were soon in arms, and attacked 
the retreating troops in all directions ; some firing behind stone 
walls and trees, and others pressing upon their rear, till they 
had returned as far as Lexington, where they were joined by 
a reinforcement, which secured their retreat to Boston, after a 
loss of 65 killed, and 180 wounded. Of the Americans, 50 
were killed, and 34 wounded. 

23. The affair at Lexington was a signal for war. The 
forts, magazines, and arsenals, throughout the colonies, were 
instantly secured for the use of the Americans. Regular forces 

23 



266 UNITED STATES. 

were raised ; a considerable army was soon collected in the 
vicinity of Boston ; a large body of troops arrived from Con- 
necticut, under colonel (afterwards general) Putnam ; and 
expeditions were sent to Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which 
secured those important posts. 

24. The provincial congress of Massachusetts, which was 
in session at the time of the affair at Lexington, despatch- 
ed an account of the transaction to England, with depositions 
to prove that the British troops were the aggressors. They 
declared their loyalty to the crown, but protested that they 
would not submit to the tyranny of the British ministry. 
" Appealing to heaven for the justice of our cause," they 
added, " we determine to die or be free." 

25. The second continental or general congress met at 
Philadelphia in May, and the appellation of the United Colo- 
nies was assumed. The congress recommended the observ- 
ance of a day of humiliation, to implore the blessings of heaven 
on their sovereign, the king of Great Britain, and the interpo- 
sition of divine aid to remove their grievances, and restore 
harmony between the parent state and the colonies, on con- 
stitutional terms. 

26. Towards the end of May, considerable reinforcements of 
British troops arrived at Boston, together with generals Howe, 
Burgoync, and Clinton, officers who had acquired a high rep- 
utation in the preceding war between England and France. 
Martial law was proclaimed; but a show of reconciliation was 
still held out by the offer of general Gage, in the king's name, 
of pardon to all such as should return to their allegiance, with 
the exception of two of the most active patriots in Massachu- 
setts, John Hancock and Samuel Adams ; the former of whom 
was chosen president of the general congress then in session. 

27. It was determined by the Americans to annoy, and, if 
possible, to dislodge, the British forces in Boston ; and for this 
purpose, a detachment of 1000 men, under the command of 
colonel Prescott, was ordered, on the 16th of June, to throw 
up a breast-work on Bunker Hill, in Charlestown. They 
prosecuted the design so silently and expeditiously, that they 
had nearly completed the redoubt by the return of daylight, 
without being discovered. Soon after the dawn, the British 
began to cannonade the works from their ships ; and in the 
morning, the Americans received a reinforcement of 500 men. 

28. About noon (17th of June), general Howe, at the head 
of 3,000 men, advanced to make an attack upon the works. 
The fire of tbe Americans was dreadful, insomuch that the 



UNITED STATES. 267 

whole British line recoiled, and was thrown into great disor- 
der ; but from the failure of ammunition, the Americans were 
obliged to retreat. The loss of the English amounted to 1,054 
in killed and wounded ; that of the Americans, to 453 ; and 
among their killed was the lamented major-general Warren, 
who hastened to the field of battle as a volunteer. While the 
British troops were advancing, orders were given to set fire to 
Charlestown ; and the whole town, consisting of about 400 
houses, was laid in ashes. This barbarous act, which was of 
no advantage to the enemy, served still further to exasperate 
the Americans. 

29. Congress resolved on measures of defence ; drew up a 
second petition to the king, and addresses to the people of 
Great Britain and of Canada, setting forth their reasons for 
taking up arms ; and organized a continental army. It was 
a point of immense importance to select a suitable man for 
commander-in-chief. Fortunately, their choice fell upon 
George Washington, a member of their body from Virginia, 
who, in the late French war, had distinguished himself by his 
courage and talents. He received from nature a mind of ex- 
traordinary capacity ; and was endowed with an uncommon 
degree of perseverance, prudence, and bravery ; while the 
soundness of his judgment, the elevation of his character, and 
the purity of his motives, were calculated to inspire the highest 
confidence. He entered immediately upon the duties of his 
office ; and on the 2d of July, he arrived at Cambridge, where 
he established his head-quarters. 

30. In pursuance of a plan of guarding the frontiers by 
taking Canada, an expedition was sent against that province, 
under the command of generals Schuyler and Montgomery ; 
but the former returning, to hold a treaty with the Indians, 
was prevented by sickness from again joining the army, and 
the chief command devolved upon the latter. Having taken 
ForiChamblee and St. John's, he advanced to Montreal, which 
surrendered without resistance ; thence he proceeded rapidly 
to Quebec. 

31. Colonel Arnold, with about 1000 men, had been sent 
from Cambridge to penetrate to that city, by way of the Ken- 
nebec and the wilderness. After a march, in which he and 
his troops were exposed to almost incredible sufferings, he 
joined Montgomery before Quebec, in November. They made 
a desperate attempt to carry the city by assault, in which, after 
displaying the highest intrepidity, they were repulsed, with a 
loss of upwards of 400 killed and wounded, and general Mont- 



268 UNITED STATES. 

gomery was slain. Early in the next season, the American^ 
entirely evacuated Canada. 

32. While hostilities were thus carried on in the north, the 
inhabitants of Virginia, who had, from the commencement 
of the controversy, been in the foremost rank of opposition, 
were engaged in a contest with the royal governor, Lord 
Dunmore, whose intemperate measures advanced the cause 
which he attempted to overthrow. In the end, he was forced 
to take refuge with his family on board a man-of-war. For 
some time, he carried on a predatory warfare against the col- 
onies, by landing detachments of troops from the ships, and 
laid the flourishing town of Norfolk in ashes ; but he was 
finally driven from the coast. 

33. In like manner the royal governors of North and South 
Carolina were expelled by the people ; and before the end of 
the year 1775, all the old governments of the colonies were 
dissolved. Many adherents to Great Britain (styled Tories), 
however, remained in the country ; and in some of the colo- 
nies they were numerous and powerful : part of them, being 
men of principle, remained quiet ; others were active in their 
hostility, and contributed to weaken the opposition to the 
British arms. — In October, general Gage embarked for Eng- 
land, and the chief command of the British forces devolved 
upon general Sir William Howe. 

34. — (1776.) — The American army investing Boston, 
amounted to about 15,000 men ; but it was, in a great meas- 
ure, destitute of good arms, ammunition, clothing, and experi- 
enced officers ; and for want of powder, and for other reasons, 
was rendered inactive, during thcsummer and autumn of 1775. 
In the latter part of the winter, general Washington resolved 
to expel the British from Boston : in order to divert their 
attention, a severe cannonade was commenced upon them by 
the Americans, on the 2d of March ; and on the night of the 
4th, a battery was erected, with surprising despatch, on Dor- 
chester Heights, which was near enough for annoying them. 

35. General Howe prepared to attack the works, but a storm 
prevented him, till they were rendered so strong, that it was 
deemed inexpedient. The only alternative now was to evacu- 
ate the town ; which having been done, general Washington, 
on the 17th of March, entered triumphantly into Boston, where 
he was joyfully received as a deliverer, by the oppressed inhab- 
itants. 

36. The news of the battle of Bunker Hill excited astonish- 
ment in England. The partisans of the ministry had been 



UNITED STATES. 269 

accustomed to speak of the American troops in terms of the 
utmost contempt ; but it now appeared that they were engaged 
in a sanguinary contest of doubtful issue ; and Lord Chatham, 
Burke, and Fox, endeavored, but without success, to produce 
a change in the measures of government. The ministry de- 
termined o employ a powerful force to reduce the colonies, 
and obtained an act of parliament, authorizing them to take 
into pay 16,000 mercenaries, the troops of the Landgrave of 
Hesse and the Duke of Brunswick. All trade and intercourse 
with the colonies were prohibited ; and their property on the 
high seas was declared to be forfeited to those who should 
capture it. The whole force now destined against America, 
amounted to about 50,000 men. 

37. The controversy had hitherto been, not for indepen- 
dence, but for constitutional liberty. But the hostile measures 
of the British government produced a strong sensation in the 
colonies, and they soon began to think seriously of dissolving 
entirely their allegiance to the mother country. A great and 
sudden change now took place in the public mind, which was, 
in part, brought about by a series of papers written by Thomas 
Paine, and published under the signature of Common Sense, 
the design of which was to prove the expediency and necessity 
of a declaration of independence. On the 7th of June, a 
motion was made, in congress, by Richard Henri/ Lee, of 
Virginia, for declaring the colonies free and independent. A 
committee, consisting of Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, 
and Livingston, was appointed to prepare a Declaration of 
Independence : and after a full discussion, the question was 
carried by a vote nearly unanimous, on the memorable 4ih of 
July, 1776. 

38. The Declaration thus concludes : " We, therefore, the* 
representatives of the United States of America, in general 
congress ^assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and 
by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly 
publish and declare, that these united colonies are, and of 
right ought to be, Free and Independent States; that they are 
absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that 
all political connection between them and the state of Great 
Britain, is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free 
and independent states, they have full power to levy war, con- 
clude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do 
all other acts and things which independent states ought to do. 
And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on 

23* 



270 UNITED STATES. 

the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to 
each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor " 



SECTION IV, 

Revolutionary War continued ; — Battles of Brooklyn, White 
Plains, Trenton, Princeton, Bennington, Brandywine, Ger- 
mantown, Stillwater ; Surrender at Saratoga ; Battles of 
Monmouth, Rhode Island, Camden, Cow-Pens, Guilford, 
Eutaw Springs ; Surrender at Yorktown ; — Independence- 
acknowledged. — From A. D. 1776 to 1783. 

1. On the 28th of July, an attack was made by Sir Peter 
Parker, with a naval force, on the fort on Sullivan's Island, 
with a design to reduce Charleston, in South Carolina. The 
fire was returned with great effect from the fort, which was 
commanded by colonel Moultrie, and the British were com- 
pelled to retreat with much damage to their ships, and with a 
loss of upwards of 200 men in killed and wounded. 

2. Sir William Howe, after having evacuated Boston, sailed 
with his army to Halifax. General Washington, believing that 
the occupation of the important and central position of New 
York would be a favorite object with the British, soon remov- 
ed to that city, with the principal part of his army. In June, 
general Howe arrived off Sandy Hook, and was soon joined 
by his brother, Admiral Lord Howe, with a great naval ar- 
mament. The British troops on board amounted to nearly 
30,000 ; to these general Washington could oppose only about 

s 17,000 men, most of them without experience or discipline, 
and many of them weakened by sickness. 

3. Lord Howe and Sir William, being both of them com- 
missioned to settle all difficulties with the colonies, before the 
commencement of hostilities, the former sent a letter to gen- 
eral Washington, offering terms of accommodation ; but the 
letter being addressed to George Washington, Esq., the com- 
mander declined receiving it, or any writing, unless directed 
to him in his proper character. A second letter was sent by 
general Howe, directed to George Washington, fyc.fyc. fyc; 
but the indignity was repelled. From some conversation, 
however, which took place, it appeared that Great Britain still 
held to all her lofty pretensions, merely offering pardon for the 
past, >y way of concession. But Washington observed that 



UNITED STATES. 271 

the Americans, having taken up arms to defend their indis- 
putable rignts, were conscious of no guilt, and wanted no 
pardon. 

4. Both sides prepared seriously for action. On the 27th 
of August, an engagement took place, between Brooklyn and 
Flatbush. The Americans, under the command of generals 
Putnam and Sullivan, being surrounded, and exposed to the 
fire of the Hessians in front, and of the British troops in the 
rear, were totally defeated, with a loss, according to their own 
statement, of upwards of 1,000, and according to that of the 
British, of 3,000. Three American generals, Sullivan, Lord 
Stirling, and Woodhull, fell into the hands of the enemy, whose 
loss was only about 300 or 400. During the heat of the en- 
gagement, general Washington crossed over from New York 
to Brooklyn, and made an admirable retreat, on the night of 
the 29th. It was effected under the cover of a thick fog, with 
such silence, order, and secrecy, that the British army, which 
was encamped only a quarter of a mile distant, did not dis- 
cover it, till it was too late to annoy the Americans. 

5. Washington, with a part of his army, retired to White 
Plains, where, on the 28th of October, an engagement took 
place, in which several hundred fell. General Howe soon after 
reduced Fort Washington, on the Hudson, containing a gar- 
rison of upwards of 2,000 men, under colonel Magaw. The 
British were now in possession of the city of New York, Long 
Island, and Staten Island. 

6. Washington, having crossed the Hudson, retreated through 
New Jersey, by Newark, New Brunswick, Princeton, and 
Trenton ; thence he crossed over to the Pennsylvania side of 
the Delaware, being closely pursued by the British army, under 
Lord Cornwallis, who arrived at the river just after the Amer- 
ican arrry had effected the passage. The British troops, in the 
full career of success, were ordered into winter cantonments. 

7. The aspect of American affairs was now exceedingly 
gloomy. The army was greatly reduced by the loss of men 
in killed, wounded, and taken; and by the departure of those 
whose enlistments had expired. To add to the disasters, 
general Charles Lee had been surprised and taken prisoner at 
Baskenridge ; and the British had seized upon Rhode Island. 
The whole number of troops under Washington, on the west 
side of the Delaware, amounted to only about 3,000, many of 
whom were without shoes or comfortable clothing. In this 
darkest hour during the war, general Howe issued a procla- 
mation offering pardon to all who would submit to royal au- 



373 UNITED STATES. 

thority ; and many persons abandoned the American cause, 
and joined the British. 

8. Washington, aware of the importance of striking some 
successful blow, in order to animate the expiring hopes of the 
country, on the night of the 25th of December, crossed the 
Delaware, fell on the enemy, at Trenton, by surprise, and took 
the whole body, consisting of about 1,000 Hessians, whose 
commander, colonel Rahl, was slain. He then proceeded to 
Princeton, and on the 3d of January, 1777, defeated a party 
of British troops, who lost about 100 men ; and forced about 
300 to surrender, who had taken refuge in the College. In 
this action, general Mercer of Virginia was killed. These 
bold and decisive measures of Washington, revived the droop- 
ing spirits of the Americans, and surprised and confounded 
the enemy. 

9. During the gloomy period of the latter part of the year 
1776, congress manifested the greatest firmness ; they increas- 
ed the power of Washington, investing him with supreme and 
unlimited command ; took measures for raising an army for 
3 years, or during the war ; formed Articles of Confederation 
between the states ; endeavored to rouse the people by an 
impressive address ; and sent agents to Europe to solicit the 
friendship and aid of foreign powers. 

10. — (1777.) — In March, general Howe sent up the Hud- 
son a detachment to destroy some stores at Peekskill ; and in 
April, another detachment of 2,000 men, under general Tryon, 
proceeded to Danbury, in Connecticut, destroyed valuable 
stores collected there, and burnt the most of the town. During 
their return, there took place, between the British and the 
Connecticut militia, some skirmishes, in one of which, the 
American commander, general Wooster, was killed. 

11. On the opening of the campaign in the spring, the 
principal American army was increased to but little more than 
7,000 men. General Howe, after having attempted in vain 
to provoke Washington to an engagement, retired from New 
Jersey to Staten Island ; afterwards embarked with 16,000 
men on board his ships ; entered the Chesapeake, and landed 
at the head of navigation on Elk river. It being obviously 
his object to occupy Philadelphia, Washington put his army 
in motion, in order, if possible, to prevent it. On the 11th of 
September, a battle was fought on the Brandywine, in which 
the American forces, after a brave resistance, were obliged to 
yield to superior numbers and discipline, with the loss of about 
1000 men in killed, wounded, and taken. Among the wound- 



UNITED STATES. 273 

ed was the young Marquis de Lafayette, who had recently 
entered as a volunteer in the American service, and had been 
appointed a major-general. The loss of the British was about 
500 men. 

12. Immediately after this battle, general Howe took pos- 
session of Philadelphia ; and the principal part of his army 
was stationed at Germantown, seven miles from the city. It 
now became necessary for him to take the forts on the Dela- 
ware, in order to open a communication with the Atlantic. 
This was effected, after having cost the British a loss of three 
or four hundred men. While a detachment was absent to 
accomplish this purpose, Washington attacked the army at 
Germantown, on the 4th of October, but was repulsed, with a 
loss of about 1,200 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners; 
while the loss of the enemy was only about half as great. 
After these transactions, the British army went into winter- 
quarters in Philadelphia. 

13. During these inauspicious operations in the Middle 
States, important events were taking place in the north. Early 
in the spring, it was determined in England to invade the states 
through Canada ; and in June, a British army, amounting to 
7,000 men, besides Canadians and Indians, commanded by 
general Burgoyne, passed up lake Champlain, and laid siege 
to Ticonderoga, which was abandoned by the Americans 
under general St. Clair. General Burgoyne proceeded to 
Skeensborough [now Whitehall], and destroyed the American 
flotilla and stores ; and from thence he led his army to Fort 
Edward, on the Hudson. 

14. While remaining here, he sent a detachment of 500 
English troops and 100 Indians, under colonel Baum, to de- 
stroy a collection of stores at Bennington, in Vermont. On 
the 16th of August, general Stark, with about 800 Vermont 
and New Hanrpshire militia, killed and took prisoners the most 
of this detachment. The next day, a reinforcement of 500 
Germans, under colonel Breyman, arrived, and was also de- 
feated by general Stark. The loss of the British in these two 
engagements, was about 600. A few days before this battle, 
general Herkimer was defeated, on the Mohawk, by the Brit- 
ish, under colonel St. Leger, with considerable loss. 

15. General Burgoyne, having collected his forces and 
stores, crossed the Hudson, and encamped at Saratoga. 
General Gates, who had recently taken the chief command 
of the American army in the northern department, having 
concentrated his troops, advanced towards the enemy, and oe 



$74 UNITED STATES. 

the 19th of September, an obstinate, but indecisive engage- 
ment took place at Stillwater, in which the Americans lost 
between 300 and 400, and the British about 600. The British 
army was soon after confined in a narrow pass ; having the 
Hudson on one side, and impassable woods on the other ; a 
body of Americans in the rear, and an enemy of 13,000 men 
in front. 

16. In this exigency, Burgoyne resolved to ascertain wheth- 
er it were possible to dislodge the Americans, and sent a body 
of 1,500 men to reconnoitre the left wing, when a second 
severe engagement took place, in which the British were 
worsted, and general Fraser was killed ; and the American 
generals, Lincoln and Arnold, were wounded. Burgoyne, 
after having made ineffectual attempts to retreat, finding his 
provisions nearly exhausted, his troops worn down with in- 
cessant toil, and his situation becoming every hour more crit- 
ical, called a council of war, in which it was unanimously 
resolved to capitulate ; and on the 17th of October, the whole 
army, consisting of 5,752 men, exclusive of sick and wounded, 
surrendered, at Saratoga, as prisoners of war, to general Gates. 

17. The surrender of Burgoyne excited the liveliest joy 
among the Americans, and inspired them with confidence 
with regard to their ultimate success in establishing their in- 
dependence. In 1776, congress had sent Dr. Franklin, Silas 
Deane, and Arthur Lee, commissioners to France, to solicit 
assistance ; but though it was evident that the French court 
secretly wished success to the Americans, yet they would give 
no open countenance to their agents, till the news of the sur- 
render of Burgoyne. That event decided the negotiation ; 
and in February, 1778, treaties of alliance, and of amity and 
commerce, were signed at Paris. The news of this alliance 
was received with great joy in America. 

18. — (1778.) — The British ministry, after hearing of the 
fate of their northern army, began to speak of American 
affairs with more moderation ; and on receiving intelligence 
of the alliance between France and the United States, their 
fears were increased. In February, Lord North laid before 
parliament bills for conciliating America ; and commissioners 
were appointed, who arrived in June, bringing terms of ac- 
commodation, which a few years before might have effected 
the object. But the day of reconciliation was past ; congress 
had now proceeded too far, and were too sanguine with regard 
to ultimate success, to listen to any terms short of an acknowl* 
edgment of independence. 



UNITED STATES. 375 

19 At the opening of the campaign of 1778, general Hmoe 
went to England, and general Sir Henry Clinton succeeded 
him as commander-in-chief. It was now determined by the 
British to concentrate their forces in the city of New York ; 
and with this view the royal army left Philadelphia in June, 
and crossed the Delaware. General Washington, penetrating 
their design, attempted to interrupt their progress. The two 
armies met on the 28th of June, near Monmouth court-house, 
where a smart action took place, in which the Americans lost 
about 230, in killed and wounded, and the British about 400. 
This day was remarkable for excessive heat, which occasioned 
great suffering and many deaths in both armies. The British 
troops retreated, after the battle, to New York, and remained 
inactive during the summer. 

20. A French fleet of 12 ships of the line and 4 frigates, 
under the command of Count d'Estaign, arrived at the en- 
trance of the Delaware in July ; and a plan was concerted to 
attack the British troops at Newport, but it proved unsuccess- 
ful. A short but obstinate engagement took place on Rhode 
Island, on the 29th of August, between the British under 
general Pigot, and the Americans under general Sullivan, in 
which each lost upwards of 200 men. The next day, the 
Americans retreated from the island. At the close of the 
season, the French fleet, without having accomplished any 
thing of importance, sailed to the West Indies. — In the autumn, 
general Clinton sent an expedition to Georgia ; and on the 
last of December, the British, after defeating the American 
force, took possession of Savannah. 

21. — (1779.) — During the year 1779, the principal theatre 
of the war was changed from the north to the south. The 
operations, however, were not of any decisive consequence ; 
though they gave rise to various expeditions, in which much 
valor and skill were displayed. The exertions of the Ameri- 
cans were enfeebled from the depreciation of their bills ol 
credit, and from their not deriving the benefit which they had 
expected from the French fleet, which was unsuccessful in 
all its enterprises. 

22. Early in the season, Sir George Collier and general 
Matthews were sent from New York to Virginia, on a pred- 
atory expedition. They landed at Portsmouth, and destroy- 
ed the shipping and valuable stores in that vicinity, together 
with many houses. A similar expedition was afterwards sent 
against the maritime parts of Connecticut, under the com- 
mand of general Tryon, who plundered New Haven, and 
burnt Fairfsld and Norwalk. 



276 UNITED STATES. 

23. The British t?oops having taken and fortified Stony 
Point, an eminence on the Hudson, an expedition, under the 
command of general Wayne, was sent, in July, to reduce it, 
which was conducted with great heroism, and the whole gar- 
rison surrendered. A similar expedition, under the command 
of general Lovell, was sent against a British post at Penobscot, 
but it was unsuccessful. General Sullivan, with a strong 
force, invaded the country of the Six Nations of Indians, de- 
stroyed 40 of their villages, with all their corn and fruit-trees, 
and returned with little loss. 

24. During this year, general Lincoln held the chief com- 
mand of the American army in the southern department. He 
sent a detachment of 1500 men to cross the Savannah, under 
the command of general Ash, who was surprised and defeated 
at Briar Creek, by general Prevost, with a loss of about 300 
men, in killed and taken. This success emboldened general 
Prevost to make an attempt on Charleston, but it was unsuc- 
cessful. Count d'Estaign having arrived with his fleet from 
the West Indies, an attack was made on the British under 
the command of general Prevost, in Savannah, by a united 
force of French and Americans ; but they were repulsed, with 
the loss of about 1,000 men, among whom was Count Pulashi i 
a Polish officer in the American service. The French fleet 
soon after departed from the American coast. 

25. — (1780.) — In 1780, South Carolina was the principal 
theatre of the war. Sir Henry Clinton sailed from New York 
with a large force, and arrived at Savannah in January. Pro- 
ceeding thence to Charleston, he laid siege to the city in April, 
and having prepared to storm it, general Lincoln was, on the 
17th of May, compelled to capitulate. The garrison, consist- 
ing of about 2,500 men, together with all the adult male in- 
habitants, were surrendered as prisoners of war. General 
Clinton, leaving about 4,000 troops for the southern service, 
under the command of Lord Cornwallis, returned to New 
York. A proclamation was issued, inviting the Carolinians 
to the royal standard ; several recruits were, in consequence, 
procured ; but the great body of the people remained true to 
the cause of liberty and independence. 

26. Charleston being now in the possession of the British, 
measures were taken to secure the obedience of the interior 
country. For this purpose, a considerable force was sent to 
Camden, under the command of Lord Rawdon. Several 
severe skirmishes took place between small parties, in one of 
which colonel Buford was defeated by a body of British 



UNITED STATES. 277 

eavalry, under colonel Tarleton; in others, the American 
general Sumpter distinguished himself. 

27. General Gates, who had been appointed to the chief 
command of the southern army, in place of general Lincoln, 
arrived at the American camp, in South Carolina, in the 
latter part of July, and troops were collected in order to op- 
pose the progress of the British. Lord Cornwallis, hearing 
of these movements, repaired to Camden, to reinforce lord 
Rawdon. On the 16th of August, a severe engagement took 
place between the two armies, in which the Americans were 
defeated, with the loss of 7 00 or 800 men, among whom was the 
Baron de Kalb, a Prussian in the American service, and the 
second officer in command. The British lost about half as 
many. The greater part of the American force consisted of 
militia, who fled at the first fire, and could not be rallied. 
General Gates, with the feeble remains of his army, retreated 
to Hillsborough, in North Carolina ; and lord Cornwallis, for 
some time after the battle of Camden, remained inactive. 

28. In July, M. de Ternay, with a French fleet, consisting 
of seven ships of the line, besides frigates, and 6,000 land 
troops, commanded by Count de Rocliambeau, arrived at Rhode 
Island. This gave new life to the American counsels and 
arms ; but the fleet suddenly returned to France, and all hope 
of naval assistance vanished. The land forces, however, re- 
mained, and co5perated in the final reduction of the British 
army. 

29. The most flagrant instance of treachery during the war, 
occurred this year. This was the plot of general Benedict 
Arnold for delivering into the hands of the enemy the im- 
portant fortress of West Point, on the Hudson. Arnold had 
distinguished himself at the siege of Quebec, and also at Sar- 
atoga, where he was severely wounded. He was afterwards 
appointed to a command in Philadelphia, where his oppressive 
conduct had subjected him to a trial by a court martial, by 
»vhich he was sentenced to be reprimanded. By these pro- 
ceedings he was highly exasperated, and determined on 
revenge. General Washington still valued him for his bravery 
and former services, and, at his request, not suspecting his in- 
tentions, intrusted him with the command of West Point. He 
soon entered into a negotiation with general Clinton for the 
surrender of that post : but happily the plot was discovered 
in season to prevent the disastrous consequences which must 
have followed from its execution. 

30. The unfortunate major Andre, the British agent in this 

24 



278 UNITED STATES. 

negotiation, being apprehended and convicted as a spy, his 
life was forfeited by the laws of war, and he was condemned 
and executed. The fate of this heroic and amiable young 
officer, was deeply regretted by the Americans, as well as by 
the English. Arnold escaped to the enemy, and received as a 
reward of his treason an appointment to the office of brigadier- 
general in the British army. 

31. — (1781.) — The operations of the war during the cam- 
paign of 1781, were chiefly in the south, and were of great 
importance. In January, Arnold, with about 1500 men, made 
a descent upon Virginia, and committed extensive depreda- 
tions on the unprotected coast of that state. 

32. In the autumn of 1780, general Greene was appointed 
to the chief command of the American southern army. The 
first action, after he assumed the command, was fought at the 
Cow-Pens, by the Americans under colonel Morgan, against the 
English under colonel Tarleton, who was defeated, with the 
loss of 300 killed, and 500 taken prisoners. The loss of the 
Americans in killed and wounded, was only 72. 

33. The two armies, under Greene and Cornwallis, met 
near Guildford court-house, in North Carolina, and on the 
15th of March, a battle was fought, in which the British lost 
upwards of 400 men, yet they remained masters of the field. 
The loss of the Americans, who were mostly militia, was about 
equal. After this battle, general Greene marched to Camden, 
where Lord Rawdon was fortified with 900 men. The British 
commander sallied out and attacked him. The loss on each 
side was between 200 and 300 men ; but the British had the 
advantage. — In September, general Greene obtained an im- 
portant victory over the British under colonel Stuart, at the 
Eutaw Springs. The loss of the enemy in killed, wounded, 
and captured, amounted to about 1,000; that of the Ameri- 
cans to 550. This action nearly finished the war in South 
Carolina. 

34. After the battle of Guildford, Lord Cornwallis proceed- 
ed towards Virginia, to join the British army under general 
Phillips ; and arriving at Petersburg in May, he took the com- 
mand of the united forces. After some predatory warfare, he 
encamped with his army on York river, at Yorktown and 
Gloucester Point, where he fortified himself in the best 
manner he was able. 

§5. A plan of combined operations against the British, had 
been previously concerted by generals Washington, Knox, 
Jtochambeau, and other officers. The point of attack was not 



UNITED STATES. 379 

absolutely determined on ; but after lord Cornwall is had col- 
lected a large army in Virginia, Washington resolved to con- 
centrate his forces against him. At the same time it was 
given out, that New York was to be the point of attack, in 
order to induce the Eastern and Middle States to exert them- 
selves in furnishing supplies, as well as to deceive Sir Henry 
Clinton, and prevent him from sending reinforcements to 
Cornwallis. Washington wrote letters to general Greene and 
others, stating his intention to attack New York, and contrived 
that these letters should be intercepted by the British com- 
mander. The project was successful, and by a variety of 
military manoeuvres, in which he completely out-generalled 
Clinton, he increased his apprehensions about New York, 
and prevented his sending assistance to Cornwallis. 

36. Having, for a considerable time, kept Clinton in per- 
petual alarm in New York, Washington suddenly quitted his 
camp at White Plains, crossed the Hudson with his army, 
and passing rapidly through New Jersey and Pennsylvania, 
arrived at Elk river, the head-quarters of a considerable army 
under the Marquis de Lafayette. A part of the forces em- 
barked and sailed for Virginia ; the rest marched by land. 

37. Clinton was not informed of the movements of Wash- 
ington, till it was too late to pursue him. He then sent a 
strong detachment under the traitor Arnold, who had recently 
returned from Virginia, against New London in Connecticut. 
Fort Griswold, which stood on a hill in Groton, nearly oppo- 
site, was taken by a party of the British, and the most of its 
garrison, together with colonel Ledyard, the commander, were 
killed or wounded ; and New London was afterwards set on 
fire and consumed. 

38. At Chester, Washington heard the cheering news of 
the arrival of 24 French ships of the line under Count de 
Grasse, in the Chesapeake. Admiral Graves, with 19 British 
ships of the lyie, arrived soon after. The two fleets had a 
slight engagement, in which the French had the advantage, 
and were left masters of the navigation of the bay. A body 
of French troops was landed to cooperate with the Americans. 
The whole combined force, under Washington, closely in 
vesting the British army at Yorktown, including continentals, 
French, and militia, amounted to about 16,000. 

39. The British army being blockaded by land and sea, 
the American forces opened the first batteries upon them 
early in October, with such effect as to silence a part of their 
artillery. Two British redoubts were taken. The second 



280 UNITED STATES. 

parallel was begun on the night of the 1 1th ; and such was 
the tremendous effect of the American artillery, that the Brit- 
ish works were demolished, their guns silenced, and no hope 
of relief or escape remained. On the 17th of October, lord 
Cornwallis proposed a cessation of hostilities ; and on the 
19th, articles of capitulation were signed, by which the British 
army, military stores, and shipping, fell into the hands of gen- 
eral Washington. The whole number of prisoners, exclusive 
of seamen, amounted to 7,073; but many of them, at the time 
of the surrender, were incapable of duty. 

40. As the reduction of this division of the British forces 
was considered as deciding the war, and establishing the in- 
dependence of the United States, the news was every where 
received with emotions of inexpressible joy. Divine service 
was performed in all the American brigades ; and the com- 
mander-in-chief recommended that all who were not on duty 
should join in the worship, " with a serious deportment and 
that sensibility of heart, which the recollection of the surpris- 
ing and particular interposition of Divine Providence in our 
favor claims." A day of public thanksgiving was recommend- 
ed by congress, and observed throughout the United States ; 
and general Washington liberated all persons under arrest, 
that all might partake in the general joy. 

41. As no rational expectation, on the part of the British, 
of conquering the United States, now remained, the military 
operations, which succeeded, were of little consequence. In 
March, 1782, lord North resigned his office as prime minis- 
ter, and a new cabinet was formed, that advised the king 
to discontinue the further prosecution of the war. General 
Carleton was appointed to the command of the British forces 
in America ; and on the 30th of November, provisional arti- 
cles of peace were signed, by which the independence and 
sovereignty of the United States were acknowledged. On the 
3d of September, 1783, there was concluded, at Versailles, by 
Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens, on the part of the Amer- 
icans, and Oswald, on the part of the British, a definitive 
treaty of peace, by which the thirteeen United Colonies were 
admitted to be " Free, Sovereign, and Independent States." 

42. Thus ended the revolutionary war ; a war which began 
in the injudicious and tyrannical endeavor to procure a revenue 
from the colonies, and which terminated in their freedom and 
sovereignty ; a war which cost Great Britain, in addition to 
the loss of her colonies, the sum of about ,£100,000,000 ster- 
ling", and about 50,000 subjects ; a war in which America 



UNITED STATES. 281 

lost many lives and much treasure, and endured every hard- 
ship and suffering incident to so arduous a struggle, for which 
she was so ill prepared ; a war, the issue of which will remain 
an encouragement to the oppressed to endeavor to rid them- 
selves of oppression, and a lesson to those who, unmindful of 
the rights of the people, would lift against them the arm of 
power, and force them to a compliance with their unjust de- 
mands; a war, to use the language of Mr. Pitt (the younger), 
" which was conceived in injustice, nurtured in folly, and 
whose footsteps were marked with slaughter and devastation. 
The nation was drained of its best blood, and its vital resour- 
ces, for which nothing was received in return, but a series of 
inefficient victories and of disgraceful defeats ; victories ob- 
tained over men fighting in the holy cause of liberty, or defeats 
which filled the land with mourning, for the loss of dear and 
valuable relations, slain in a detested and impious quarrel." 



SECTION V. 

The Army disbanded : The Constitution formed : Washing- 
ton's Administration : Adams's Administration. — From 
A. D. 1783 to 1801. 

1. When the American army was to be disbanded, new 
and serious difficulties arose concerning the payment of the 
arrears of their wages and rations. The want of resources to 
carry on the war, and of supreme power to lay and collect 
taxes, had driven congress to the expedient of emitting vast 
sums in bills of credit, which depreciated so much as to be 
of scarcely any value ; and, on account of the interruption of 
commerce, and the vast quantities of paper money which had 
been issued, gold and silver were, for a time, almost wholly 
banished from circulation. The depreciated currency, in 
which the troops were paid, deprived them of a great part of 
what was really their due ; and neither officers nor soldiers 
could make a decent appearance in point of dress, while the 
families of many were suffering at home. 

2. The officers of the army, reposing confidence in the 
faith of their country, remained quiet till the close of the war; 
but much agitation and alarm were, at length, excited among 
them, by the apprehension that they were to be disbanded 
without having a settlement of their accounts, or any provision 

24* 



282 UNITED STATES. 

for the payment of what was che to them. In this state of 
feeling, that portion of the army that was stationed at Nvijd- 
burg, was thrown into alarming agitation by an address to the 
officers, privately circulated among them, appealing to their 
passions, and designed to stir them up to violent measures. 

3. At this crisis, the virtues of Washington shone forth with 
peculiar and unrivalled lustre. He assembled the officers ; 
exhorted them to moderation in demanding their arrears ; 
promised to exert all his influence in their favor ; and con- 
jured them, " as they valued their honor, as they respected 
the rights of humanity, and as they regarded the military and 
national character of the American states, to express their 
utmost detestation of the men who were attempting to open 
the flood-gates of civil discord, and deluge their rising empire 
with blood." 

4. These words, coming from one whom they had been 
accustomed to reverence, were weighty and decisive. After 
his speech, the officers voted him an address of thanks, and 
resolved that they continued to have an unshaken confidence 
in the justice of congress and their country. Congress had 
but little money, and no effectual means of raising it ; but 
they put the accounts of the army m a train for settlement ; 
and decreed, that the officers should receive, after the end of 
the war, five years' additional pay, and each soldier eighty 
dollars besides his wages. 

5. The 3d of November was fixed upon for disbanding the 
army : the day preceding, Washington issued his farewell 
orders to his troops, replete with friendly advice and affection- 
ate wishes for their presenc and future welfare. Having after- 
wards taken an affecting leave of his officers, he repaired to 
Annapolis, where congress was then sitting, delivered to the 
president his military commission, and declared that he was 
no longer invested with any public character. After this 
declaration, retiring, followed by the gratitude of his country, 
and the applause and admiration of the world, to his estate at 
Mount Vernon, he addicted himself to the peaceful pursuits 
of agriculture. 

6. At the close of the war, when the states were released 
from the presence of danger, the government, under the Arti- 
cles of Confederation, was found to be weak, and wholly in- 
sufficient for the public exigencies. The authority of congress 
was reduced to a mere name ; a large public debt had been 
contracted, but no provision had been made for paying either 
the principal or the interest. As congress had no revenue, 



UNITED STATES. orjj 

they could give no effectual value to their paper currency ; 
and the public securities fell to a very small proportion of 
their nominal value, as it was regarded as extremely doubtful 
whether the government would ever be able to redeem them 

7. In this state of affairs, most of the army notes were sold 
for about a 6th or an 8th of their nominal value ; so that the 
brave men who had fought the battles of their country, and 
endured hardships, cold, and hunger ; and who had repeat- 
edly received of congress solemn assurances of recompense 
for their toils and dangers, were at last forced to sell their 
securities for a mere trifle, in order to keep their families from 
distressing want. 

8. The necessity of a more efficient general government 
was, at length, extensively felt ; and in accordance with a 
proposition of the legislature of Virginia, commissioners from 
several of the states met, in 1786, at Annapolis, to form a 
general system of commercial regulations. But judging that 
their authority was too limited to accomplish any desirable 
purpose, they adjourned, with instructions to advise the states 
to appoint delegates with more ample powers, to meet the 
next year at Philadelphia. 

9. Accordingly, delegates from the different states assem- 
bled in that city, in May, 1787, and elected general Wash- 
ington, who was a member of their body from Virginia, for 
their president. After four months' deliberation, the Federal 
Constitution was, on the 17th of September, unanimously 
agreed to by the members of the convention ; and being pre- 
sented to congress, it was, by that body, transmitted to the 
several states for their consideration. Being accepted and 
ratified, in 1788, by eleven members of the confederacy, it 
became the constitution of the United States. The two dis- 
senting states were North Carolina and Rhode Island ; the 
formei adopted it in 1789 ; the latter in 1790. 

10. According to'the constitution, the several states elected 
their delegates to congress ; and by a unanimous vote, Wash- 
ington was chosen the first president. When the appointment 
was officially announced to him, although unwilling to leave 
his retirement, he yielded to the unanimous voice of his coun- 
try ; and bidding adieu to Mount Vernon, to private life, and 
to domestic felicity, he proceeded, without delay, to New 
York, where congress was assembled. In his progress to that 
city, he was met by numerous bodies of people, who hailed 
him as the father of his country ; triumphal arches were 
erected tc commemorate his achievements ; aged womeu 



284 UNITED STATES. 

blessed him as he passed ; and virgins, strewing flowers in 
3his way, expressed their hope that he, who had defended the 
Injured rights of their parents, would not refuse his protection 
to their children. 

11. On the 30th of April, he was inaugurated president of 
the United States. The ceremony was performed in the open 
gallery of the City Hall, in New York, where the oath was 
administered to him, in the presence of a countless multitude 
of spectators. The importance of the act, the novelty of the 
scene, the dignity of the general's character, the gravity of 
his manner, and the reverence with which he bowed to kiss 
the sacred volume, impressed upon the transaction a solemnity 
never before witnessed in America. 

12. The joy of the nation at the establishment of the new 
government, with Washington at its head, was scarcely ex- 
ceeded by that of any preceding event. His personal influ- 
ence was such as to give the government a character both at 
home and abroad ; and he possessed the inestimable talent 
of collecting the wisest counsellors, and of selecting the best 
opinions for the direction of his own conduct. At the same 
time that he was elected president, John Adams, who had 
borne a distinguished part in the revolution, was chosen vice- 
president. The other principal officers, at the first organiza- 
tion of the government, were Thomas Jefferson, secretary of 
state ; Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury ; Henry 
Knox, secretary of war ; Edmund Randolph, attorney-gen- 
eral ; and John Jay, chief justice of the United States. 

13. The beneficial effects of the new government, as ad- 
ministered by Washington and his assistants, were soon felt 
Public confidence was restored ; commerce revived ; the na- 
tional debt, incurred during the revolutionary war, was fund- 
ed, and brought, at once, to its par value ; and the United 
States suddenly rose from a state of embarrassment and de- 
pression, to a high degree of national prosperity. 

14. In 1790, the country was involved in a sanguinary war 
with the Indians to the north of the Ohio, who obtained a 
victory over general Harmer, and another in the following 
year (1791), over general St. Clair; but general Wayne, 
who succeeded to the command of the army, completely rout- 
ed the savages, and negotiated a treaty of peace, in 1795, at 
Greenville. 

15. While the United States were engaged in war with 
the Indians, they were also involved in new difficulties by the 
convulsions of ~E irope. The French revolution had commen- 



UNITED STATES. 285 

eed, and that nation was under the wild misrule of the Direc- 
tory. Claims were made on this country for assistance ; the 
feelings of a large portion of the community were warmly 
enlisted on the side of France, and would have urged the 
nation into hostilities with England. But it was the policy of 
Washington's administration to remain neutral ; yet this course 
of the government met with opposition, and increased the hos- 
tility of the two parties, into which the country had begun to 
be divided. 

16. Washington, having been twice unanimously elected 
president, and having administered the government with great 
advantage to the country, near the close of his second term 
of four years, declined a reelection, in a valedictory address 
to the people, replete with maxims of political wisdom, and 
breathing sentiments of the warmest affection for his country. 
At the expiration of his term, he again withdrew to his resi- 
dence at Mount Vernon, and was succeeded in office by John 
Adams. 

17. During Mr. Adams's administration, the French revo- 
lutionary government, disappointed in its object of engaging 
the United States in the war with England, pursued a course 
of insult and aggression towards them, which ended in open 
hostilities. The American government, at length, adopted 
measures of defence and retaliation ; the navy was increased, 
and a provisional army was raised, of which general Wash- 
ington was appointed commander-in-chief. A few months 
afterwards, the directory government of France was over- 
thrown, and the disputes between that country and this were 
amicably adjusted. 

18. Not long after having accepted the command of the 
army, Washington died suddenly, at Mount Vernon, on the 
14th of December, 1799, in the 68th year of his age. The 
news of the death of the great American general, statesman, 
and patriot, produced an impression that is without a parallel 
in America. The people of the United States, in accordance 
with the recommendation of congress, wore crape on the left 
arm, 30 days, as a token of spontaneous and unaffected grief; 
eulogies were delivered, and funeral processions celebrated 
throughout the country ; thus exhibiting the affecting and 
sublime spectacle of a nation in mourning for the loss of one 
whom they had been accustomed to regard as the father of 
his country. 

19. For several years, the nation had been much agitated 
by the conflicts of parties. At the time of the adoption of 



286 UNITED STATES. 

the federal constitution, those in favor of it were styled feder* 
aiists, and those against it, anti-federalists ; but the two par- 
ties were afterwards generally designated by the names of 
federalists and democrats or republicans. These parties differ- 
ed from each other, both with regard to the foreign relations 
of the country, and on various subjects of domestic policy. 
The federalists accused the republicans of an undue partiality 
for France ; and the latter charged the former with a similar 
partiality for Great Britain. A commercial treaty with Great 
Britain, negotiated by Mr. Jay, in 1794, was severely cen- 
sured by the republicans, and kindled the animosities of the 
parties. 

20. Many of the measures of Mr. Adams's administration, 
relating both to foreign and domestic policy, met with much 
opposition. Some of the acts which excited the most dissat- 
isfaction, were raising a standing army, imposing a direct tax, 
and enacting the " alien and sedition laws." In 1801, a rev- 
olution took place in the administration of public affairs ; and 
the republican party, having become the majority, succeeded 
in elevating their candidate, Thomas Jefferson, to the presi- 
dency, in opposition to Mr. Adams. 



SECTION VI. 

Jefferson's Administration : Madison's Administration ; War 
with Great Britain : — Monroe ; Adams ; Jackson. — From 
A. D. 1801 to 1830. 

1. At the time when Mr. Jefferson was raised to the presi- 
dency, the state of the country was highly prosperous ; and it 
so continued during the first term of his official career ; near 
the end of which, he was reelected by an almost unanimous 
vote. The war which had, for a number of years, been raging 
between Great Britain and France, had involved nearly all the 
nations of Europe. America endeavored to maintain a neu- 
trality towards the belligerents, and peaceably to carry on a 
commerce with them. Being the great neutral trader, she 
had an interest in extending the privileges of neutrality, which 
the belligerents, on the contrary, were inclined to contract 
within the narrowest limits. 

2. In May, 1806, the British government declared all the 
ports and rivers, from the Elbe in Germany to Brest in France, 



UNITED STATES. 287 

to be blockaded, and all American vessels trading with these 
interdicted ports, were liable to seizure and condemnation. 
In the ensuing November, the emperor of France issued his 
Berlin Decree, declaring the British islands in a state of block- 
ade, and prohibiting all intercourse with them. Next follow- 
ed, in November, 1807, the British Orders in Council, by 
which all neutral vessels, trading with France, were compelled 
to stop at a British port, and pay a duty. In consequence of 
this measure, Bonaparte issued, in December, the Milan De- 
cree, by which every vessel, which should submit to British 
search, or consent to any pecuniary exactions whatever, was 
confiscated. 

3. In the same month [December], on the recommendation 
of Mr. Jefferson, congress laid an embargo on all the shipping 
of the United States ; in March, 1809, the embargo was re- 
moved, and non-intercourse with France and Great Britain 
was substituted. 

4. While matters continued in this state, new causes of 
provocation continually occurred. The trade of the United 
States was harassed by both of the belligerents ; and the gov- 
ernment was accused in Britain of partiality to France, and 
in France of pusillanimously submitting to the insults of 
Britain. 

5. But one species of injury, which was keenly felt and 
loudly complained of in this country, the United States suffer- 
ed exclusively from Britain. This was the impressment of 
her seamen on board the American vessels, by British men- 
of-war. The similarity of language renders it difficult to dis- 
tinguish American from British seamen ; but there is reason 
to believe that, on some occasions, the British officers were 
not anxious to make the distinction ; being determined, at all 
hazards, to procure men ; and American seamen were com- 
pelled to serve in the British navy, and fight the battles of 
Britain. 

6. The British, on, the other hand, complained that their 
seamen escaped on board American vessels, to which they 
were encouraged, and where they were carefully concealed ; 
and they contended for the right of searching American mer- 
chant vessels for their own run-away seamen. This custom 
had been long practised ; was a fruitful source of irritation ; 
and was submitted to, with extreme reluctance, on the part 
of the Americans, who maintained that, under British naval 
officers, it was often conducted in the most arbitrary manner, 
with little regard to the feelings of those against whom it was 



288 UNITED STATES. 

enforced ; and that, under the color of this search, native 
seamen were frequently dragged on board British vessels. 

7. The custom of searching for British seamen had hitherto 
been confined to private vessels; but in 1807, it was ascer- 
tained that 4 seamen had deserted from the British service, 
and entered on board the Chesapeake, an American frigate, 
commanded by commodore Barron, and carrying 36 guns. 
Captain Humphreys of the Leopard, an English frigate of 50 
guns, in compliance with the orders of admiral Berkeley, fol- 
lowed the Chesapeake beyond the Capes of Virginia, and after 
demanding the deserters, fired a broadside upon the American 
frigate, and killed and wounded about 20 men. The Chesa- 
peake struck her colors, and the 4 seamen were given up. 

8. This outrage occasioned a general indignation through- 
out the country ; and was deemed, by many, in conjunction 
with other causes, a sufficient ground for declaring war. The 
president issued a proclamation, ordering all British vessels of 
war to quit the waters of the United States, and forbidding all 
intercourse between them and the inhabitants. The British 
government disavowed the attack on the Chesapeake ; yet the 
measures taken with regard to the affair, were far from beirig 
satisfactory to the government of this country. 

9. In 1809, Mi. Jefferson, having declined a reelection, 
was succeeded by James Madison, who had been a leading 
man in the late administration, and who pursued the same 
general policy. At the commencement of the new admin- 
istration, an arrangement was made with Mr. Erskine, the 
British minister, by which the American government was in- 
duced to renew the trade with England ; but this arrangement 
was afterwards disavowed on the part of Britain. The suc- 
ceeding negotiator, Mr. Jackson, having, soon after his arri- 
val, used offensive language, the president declined having 
any further correspondence with him. An unhappy rencoun- 
ter between the American and English ships of war, the Pres- 
ident and the Little Belt, served to increase the unfriendly 
sentiments of the two countries. 

10. — (1812.) — The prospect of an amicable adjustment of 
existing difficulties between the United States and Great Brit- 
ain, continuing to become daily more dark and unpromising, 
congress met, pursuant to adjournment, on the 25th of May, 
1812 ; and on the 1st of June, the president sent a message 
to that body, strongly recommending a declaration of war. 
The principal grounds for it, as stated in the message, were 
the impressment of American seamen by the British ; the 



UNITED STATES. 289 

blockading of the ports of their enemies ; the orders in coun 
cil ; and a suspicion that the Indians had been instigated to 
acts of hostility by British agents. 

11. The bill for declaring war passed the house of repre- 
sentatives, by a vote of 79 to 49, and the senate, by one of 19 
to 13 ; and on the 18th of June, the day after it passed the 
senate, it was signed by the president. Five days after the 
declaration of war, the British orders in council were repealed, 
in consequence of the decrees of Berlin and Milan having 
been revoked. 

12. The minority of congress opposed the declaration of 
war, on the ground of its being, in their view, unnecessary 
and impolitic ; they maintained also, that the aggressions of 
the French had been greater than those of the English ; and 
they entered a solemn protest against the measure. A con- 
siderable proportion of the people of the United States sympa- 
thized, in their views, with this minority ; and the war was, con- 
sequently, prosecuted with much less energy and success than 
it might have been, if there had been a unanimity in its favor. 

13. Notwithstanding the length of time during which hos- 
tilities had been meditated, they were commenced in a very 
imperfect state of preparation on the part of the American 
government ; and in consequence, the operations of the Amer- 
ican armies, by land, during the first year, were wholly un- 
successful and disastrous. 

14. On the 12th of July, general Hull, with an army of 
upwards of 2,000 men, invaded Canada ; and on the 16th of 
August, he surrendered, with the whole of his troops, to the 
British. A second attempt to invade the province, was made 
by general Van Rensselaer, who, with about 1,000 men, 
crossed the Niagara, in November, and attacked the British 
at Quecnstoivn : after an obstinate engagement, he was obliged 
to surrender with his army. In this engagement the British 
general Brock was killed. 

15. While the operations of the troops of the United States, 
in Canada, were so* extremely unfortunate and mortifying, 
brilliant success attended the American flag on the ocean.. 
In August, the frigate Constitution, commanded by captain 
Hull, captured the British frigate the Guerriere. In October, 
the frigate United States, commanded by captain Decatur, 
took the British frigate the Macedonian. In November, the 
British sloop the Frolic was captured by the sloop Wasp, 
under captain Jones ; but the Wasp was immediately after 
taken by the Poictiers, a British seventy-four. In December, 

25 



290 UNITED STATES. 

the Constitution, commanded by captain Bainbridge, captured 
the British frigate the Java. In these four engagements, the 
total loss of the British in killed and wounded, was 423 ; that 
of the Americans only 73. 

IQ — (1813.) — The operations of the war during this year, 
were productive of alternate successes and reverses. In Jan- 
uary, a detachment of about 800 men, under general Winches- 
tar, was surprised and defeated by the British and Indians 
under general Proctor, at Frenchtown, on the river Raisin. 
Those who had not fallen, amounting to about 500, surren- 
dered prisoners, a great part of whom were inhumanly massa- 
cred by the Indians. 

17. In April, a detachment of 1,700 American troops, under 
general Pike, after some severe fighting, took possession of 
York, in Upper Canada, and destroyed a large quantity of 
public stores. By the explosion of a mine, prepared for the 
purpose, general Pike, together with about 100 Americans, 
was killed. The British lost about 700 in killed, wounded, 
and captured. — Colonel Dudley, being detached from Fort 
Meigs, with 800 men, to attack the enemy's battery, was sur- 
rounded by a large army of Indians, under Tecumseh, and 
was defeated, with the loss of most of his troops. 

18. In May, an attack was made upon Sacketfs Harbor by 
about 1,000 British troops, under Sir George Prevost, who 
was repulsed with considerable loss, by the Americans under 
general Brown. Two days before this event, Port George, 
in Canada, was taken by the Americans under general Boyd 
and colonel Miller. The British, who were commanded by 
general Vincent, lost nearly 1,000 in killed, wounded, and 
captured. A few days afterwards, generals Chandler and 
Winder, who had advanced with a considerable force, were 
surprised in the night, not far from the fort, by the British, 
under general Vincent, and were both taken prisoners. 

19. The most brilliant achievement, during this year, was 
the defeat of the British naval force on Lake Erie, in Septem- 
ber, by commodore Perry. The British fleet consisted of 6 
vessels, having 63 guns ; that of the Americans of 9 vessels, 
with 56 guns. The conflict, which lasted 3 hours, was tre- 
mendous ; but the victory was complete. The British force, 
being reduced to almost a total wreck, fell entirely into the 
hands of the Americans, who were, by this achievement, ren- 
dered masters of the lake. 

20. After this victory, general Harrison embarked his main 
army on board the American squadron, landed on the Cana- 



UNITED STATES. 291 

dian shore, and in October, near the Thames, defeated and 
dispersed the British army under general Proctor. In this 
action the enemy sustained a severe loss, and the celebrated 
Indian chief Tecumseh was killed. But the Americans were 
afterwards repulsed at Williamsburg. 

21. Great preparations had been made for the conquest of 
Canada, under generals Wilkinson and Hampton ; but nothing 
of importance was effected ; and a disagreement between the 
two generals prevented that concert which was necessary to 
insure success. The village of Newark, in Canada, being- 
burnt by the Americans, the British crossed over, and, in re- 
taliation, burnt Buffalo and some other villages. During this 
year, the British, under admiral Cockburn, committed various 
depredations in the south, and on the shores of the Chesa- 
peake ; but they were repulsed at Craney island, near Norfolk. 

22. The English were more successful on the ocean, during 
this year, than during the preceding. The American flag, 
however, was not, in any instance, disgraced ; nor were our 
ships and men found inferior to those of Britain of equal force. 
In February, the Hornet, commanded by captain Lawrence, 
captured the British sloop the Peacock. In June, the Chesa- 
peake, under captain Lawrence, was captured by the Shannon, 
commanded by captain Broke. In August, the Argus wa3 
captured by the English sloop the Pelican ; and in September, 
the British brig the Boxer surrendered to the Enterprise. 

23. — (1814.) — The campaign of 1814 was distinguished 
by more severe fighting in Canada, than had before occurred. 
On the 2d of July, the Americans, under general Brown, 
having taken Fort Erie, proceeded to attack the British under 
general Drummond, at Chippewa, where, on the 5th, an obsti- 
nate engagement took place, which terminated in favor of the 
Americans. On the 25th of the month, a more sanguinary 
and warmly-contested battle was fought, at Bridgewater, by 
the Americans, under generals Brown and Scott, and the Brit- 
ish, under generals Brummond and Riall. The British were 
forced to retreat, with the loss of about 900 in killed, wound- 
ed, and taken. The American army was also so much weak- 
ened, that it fell back to Fort Erie, which the British after- 
wards attempted to storm, but they were repulsed with a severe 
loss. This was the last important operation of the war on this 
frontier. 

24. Sir George Prevost, having received large reinforce- 
ments from the troops which had been employed under the 
Duke of Wellington, in Spain, now advanced with an army 



292 UNITED STATES. 

of 14,000 men, to carry offensive war into the United States ; 
and his first attempt was on Plattsburg. The operations of 
this army were accompanied by those of the British naval force 
on Lake Champlain, consisting of 95 guns and 1,050 men, 
commanded by commodore Downie. This force was totally 
defeated by the American fleet, having 86 guns and 826 men, 
under the command of commodore Macdonough. During the 
engagement between the fleets, Sir George Prevost attacked 
the forts of Plattsburg, but was effectually repulsed by the 
Americans, under general Macomb. The loss of the British, 
in killed, wounded, and deserters, was estimated at 2,500 ; 
while that of the Americans, both on the land and water, was 
only 231. 

25. In August, a British fleet of about 60 sail arrived in the 
Chesapeake, and an army of about 5,000 men, under general 
Ross, landed in the Patuxent, about 40 miles from the city 
of Washington. Having easily put to flight the American 
militia, under general Winder, at Bladensburg, the enemy 
entered Washington, burnt the capitol, the president's house, 
and other public buildings, and retired without molestation. 
In September, about a fortnight after this transaction, the Brit- 
ish army, to the number of about 7,000, under general Ross 
and admiral Cockburn, made a similar attempt on Baltimore ; 
but after gaining some advantages, they were finally repulsed 
In this attempt general Ross was killed. 

26. On the ocean, the American flag maintained its repu- 
tation, and in no instance yielded to an inferior or an equal 
force. The American frigate the Essex, however, was cap- 
tured by the British frigate the Phozbe and the sloop Cherub, 
of a superior force ; and the frigate President, by a squadron 
of the enemy ; but the British vessels of war the Epervier, 
Avon, Reindeer, Cyane, Levant, and Penguin, were taken by 
the Americans. 

27. As the war between the United States and Great Britain 
was a branch of the great European quarrel, it naturally fell to 
the ground when that quarrel ceased. The matters in dispute 
between the two countries related to maritime and neutral 
rights ; but with regard to these subjects, there was no longer 
any cause of difference, as the world was at peace. On the 
restoration of peace in Europe, both parties began to think 
seriously about ending the war ; and the emperor of Russia 
offered his services as mediator, which were, however, declined 
by the British government, and a direct negotiation at Londoa 



UNITED STATES. 293 

or Gottenburg was proposed. In April, 1813, commissioners, 
on the part of the United States, were appointed to meet others 
from England ai Gottenburg : but the place of meeting was 
afterwards changed to Ghent, where a treaty was finally signed 
on the 24th of December, 1814. 

28. While the negotiation was in progress, a large arma- 
ment, under the command of Sir Edward Packenham, was 
fitted out by Great Britain, for an attack on New Orleans, 
with the intention, apparently, of ending the war with some 
eclat ; but the design met with a most signal and fatal defeat. 
The British, after enduring great fatigues and numerous diffi- 
culties, and sustaining some desperate encounters, assaulted 
the works thrown up for the defence of the city, on the 8th 
of January, 1815, when they were dreadfully cut to pieces and 
repulsed by the Americans, under general Jackson. The loss 
of the enemy, in killed, wounded, and captured, amounted to 
about 2,600 ; among the slain were the commander-in-chief, 
general Packenham, and other principal officers. The loss 
of the Americans was only 7 killed, and 6 wounded. 

29. This was the last important operation of the war ; the 
joyful news of peace having happily put an end to further 
hostilities. 

30. In the treaty of Ghent, no allusion is made to the causes 
of the war, each party being left in possession of its real or 
imaginary rights. In case, therefore, that Great Britain should 
be engaged in another European war, the questions between 
the two countries, which are now set at rest by peace, might 
be again revived, and would, it is to be apprehended, lead to 
new difficulties. 

31. But as it is evident that Great Britain and the United 
States, though they may harass and annoy each other, can never 
make such an impression as to compel a peace, it may.be 
hoped they will be warned by experience to avoid useless 
wars ; that they will exist hereafter, not for each other's an- 
noyance, but for each other's benefit ; and that their policy 
will be to avoid every cause of mischief and contention, and 
draw closer every tie, whether of consanguinity, religion, or 
interest, which can firmly unite them in a lasting peace. 

32. Mr. Madison, after having filled the office of president 
of the United States during 8 years, was succeeded, in 1817, 
by James Monroe, whose administration was generally quiet 
and prosperous, and who was succeeded, in 1825, by John 
Quincy Adams. 

25* 



294 UNITED STATES. 

33. After the restoration of peace, the country soon re- 
turned to its former prosperity : commerce revived ; agriculture 
and manufactures became prosperous ; the attention of the 
people has since been turned to various objects of internal 
improvement ; education, literature, and the useful arts, have 
been fostered and promoted ; and several new states have 
been added to the confederacy. 

34. On the 4th of July, in 1826, while the people of the 
United States were engaged in celebrating the Fiftieth Anni- 
versary of our National Independence, John Adams and 
Thomas Jefferson expired ; the former at his residence at 
duincy, in Massachusetts, in his 91st year, and the latter at 
Monticello, in Virginia, in his 84th year. 

35. These distinguished men stood first and second on the 
committee of five appointed by congress to prepare the Decla- 
ration of Independence in 1776; and of this instrument Mr. 
Jefferson was the writer, and Mr. Adams the most powerful 
advocate. They afterwards held, in succession, the office of 
president of the United States, and were also at the head of 
the two opposite parties into which the country was long 
divided. After having retired from public life, they renewed 
and cultivated a friendly intercourse with each other, and 
finally passed out of the world together, on the Fiftieth Anni- 
versary of the day which their Declaration had rendered 
illustrious as the era of American Independence. 

36. In 1829, John duincy Adams was succeeded in the 
office of president by Andrew Jackson. 



[For a chronological view of the History of the United 
States, see page 341.] 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, 



SECTION I. 

From the Birth of Christ to the year 325. 

1. Ecclesiastical History is the history of the Church 
of Christ, or of Christianity, from its first promulgation to the 
present time. This period, embracing about 18 centuries, may 
be distinguished into four great divisions. 

2. The first division extends from the birth of Christ to 
A. D. 325, when, during the reign of Constantine the Great, 
Christianity became the religion of the Roman empire. Tins 
is the era of primitive Christianity, the professors of which, 
compared with those of the subsequent period, were distin- 
guished for the simplicity of their doctrine, and the purity of 
their lives. During this period, Christianity was so far from 
being protected by the civil government, that it was subjected 
by it to the most cruel persecutions. 

3. The second division comprises the period from the time 
of Constantine to the year 755, when the supremacy of the 
Pope was acknowledged, and his temporal dominion establish- 
ed. During this period, Christianity became corrupted by the 
infusion of a secular or worldly spirit among its professors ; 
and also by incorporating with it the philosophy and supersti- 
tions of paganism. 

4. The third division extends from the commencement of 
the temporal dominion of the pope to the Reformation, which 
began in 1517. This period was the reign of ignorance, su- 
perstition, and ecclesiastical tyranny. The greater part of it 
is comprised in what is termed the Dark Ages, during which 
the lights, both of religion and knowledge, were almost extin- 
guished 



296 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

5 The fourth division includes the interval between the era 
of the Reformation and the present time. The progress of the 
Reformation has been accompanied by the revival of learning, 
and a variety of improvements in the state of society. During 
tKis period have appeared the various denominations into which 
the Protestants are now divided. 

6. In the 753d year of Rome, and during the reign of Au- 
gustus Ccesar, our Savior, Jesus Christ, was born. The 
place of his nativity was Bethlehem, in Judea, and his reputed 
father was Joseph, a carpenter of Nazareth in Galilee. His 
birth took place at a time when Roman literature was in its 
zenith, and when the whole world was at peace. Before this 
event, Judea and most other parts of the then known world, 
had become subject or tributary tq the Romans. 

7. At the time of the advent of our Savior, an expectation 
extensively prevailed, that an extraordinary personage was 
about to appear in the world. The Jews, particularly, were 
expecting the coming of their Messiah, who, they imagined, 
would be a temporal prince, clothed with worldly splendor and 
power, and would deliver their nation from subjection to the 
Romans. 

8. The Jews, at this period, were divided into three sects, 
the Phar'isees, Sad'ducees, and Es-senes 1 . The Essenes were 
the Therapeu'ta of Judea, a class of men who took no concern 
in political affairs, and professed to live in contemplative retire- 
ment, and to attempt to purify the soul by abstinence, silence, 
and other kinds of mortification. 

9. The Sadducees were unbelievers in religion. They 
admitted, however, the authority of the books of Moses, but 
denied the sacred character of the other parts of the Old 
Testament, and rejected the doctrine of a future life, and the 
existence of angels and spirits. Many of them were learned, 
rich, and powerful. 

10. But the most popular and numerous of the three sects 
were the Pharisees, who presided in the schools, and were the 
chief doctors of the law. They received all the books of the 
Old Testament, and to these they added their traditions, or 
oral law, which they represented as of equal authority ; yet 
many of the precepts contained in this oral law were in direct 
opposition, not only to the spirit, but also to the letter, of the 
decalogue. The Pharisees affected an appearance of great 
sanctity and devotion ; yet, being destitute of the spirit of true 
religion, were chargeable with the grossest hypocrisy. They 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 397 



* 



looked for a Messiah who should be a mighty deliverer ; who 
should rescue their nation from the dominion of the Romans, 
and subject the whole world to the institutions of Moses. 

11. The manner of our Savior's appearance was, in oppo- 
sition to the expectation of the Jews, the farthest possible from 
worldly authority and splendor. His reputed father was a car- 
penter ; he was laid in a manger at his birth ; he led a life of 
labor and suffering ; endured the scoffs and reproaches of the 
world ; and at last suffered an ignominious death upon the 
cross. He plainly declared that his kingdom was not of this 
world, and chose for his disciples, men from the humblest 
walks of life. These were styled apostles, and were commis- 
sioned to propagate the new religion. They were endued 
with the power of working miracles, and were furnished with 
the gift of tongues, by which they were enabled to preach the 
gospel to all nations in their respective languages. 

12. The first missionaries of the faith proceeded, in good 
earnest, in the great work of christianizing the world. Their 
success varied according to circumstances ; but in general 
they met with great opposition, and were frequently exposed 
to the severest persecution. The Jews, having rejected and 
crucified our Savior, were little inclined to listen to the in- 
structions of his disciples, or receive his religion ; but among 
tiie (jentiles, the apostles met with wonderful success. 

13. The rapidity, with which Christianity was propagated 
among the Gentiles, will appear extraordinary, when we con- 
sider that the founder of it belonged to a hated nation, and 
had suffered a public and ignominious death ; that the apos- 
tles and evangelists were poor men, destitute of power and 
influence, and, except in the case of St. Paul, had no preten- 
sions to learning ; that the religion which they preached, held 
out no promise of temporal good, no worldly pleasures, riches, 
honor, or power ; but on the contrary, often exposed its pro- 
fessors to the loss of all of them ; that it had to contend, not 
only with the false religions and popular superstitions of the 
age, but also with the prejudices, passions, and vices of the 
world. 

14. This rapid success, under such circumstances, can be 
accounted for only upon the supposition that the apostles were 
endowed with miraculous gifts. They healed the sick ; they 
raised the dead to life ; and they preacheo to every nation that 
they visited, in its own language, the glad tidings of salvation,, 
supporting and comforting their converts amidst the severest 
sufferings to which the) were exposed, 



298 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 



t 



15. The evidences of their commission were multiplied on 
every side ; and the temples of idolatry began speedily to be 
forsaken. Churches were soon established in almost every 
part of the Roman empire ; in the provinces of Asia Minor and 
in Ethiopia ; at Cor'inth, at Philip'pi, at Thessaloni'ca, and 
in the capital city of Rome. In a short time, nations and 
cities more remote heard of the gospel. The Gauls received 
the knowledge of Christianity from the immediate successors 
of the apostles ; and during the second century, the Germans, 
the Spaniards, and the Britons, were added to the multitudes 
in other parts, who made open profession of the Christian 
faith. 

16. The Christians were, however, subjected, by the Roman 
government, to the severest persecution. Most of the apostles, 
and many of their immediate successors, obtained the crown 
of martyrdom. Ten persecutions are usually enumerated as 
having taken place under the emperors ; but this number is 
not very accurate ; for there were not so many that were gen- 
eral throughout the empire, but still more, if all that raged in 
particular provinces are included. The first general persecu- 
tion took place under the emperor Nero, who, having set fire 
to the city of Rome, and reduced a great part of it to ashes, 
charged the guilt of this transaction upon the Christians, and 
inflicted upon them the severest sufferings. In this persecu- 
tion, St. Paul suffered martyrdom. 

17. Even the emperor Trajan, who is described as a mild 
and excellent sovereign, is to be numbered among the cruel 
persecutors of the professors of the new religion. During his 
reign, the younger Pliny was governor of Bithynia; and in a 
letter to the emperor, he thus states what had been his practice 
with regard to the disciples of Christ. " This has been my 
method," says he, " with regard to those who were brought 
before me as Christians : I asked them if they were Christians, 
and if they pleaded guilty, I interrogated them twice afresh, 
with a menace of capital punishment. In case of obstinate 
perseverance, I ordered them to be executed. For of this I 
had no doubt, whatever was the nature of their religion, that 
a sullen and inflexible obstinacy called for the vengeance of the 
magistrate." Such, under the reign even of the mild Trajan, 
was the extraordinary proceeding of the philosophic Pliny, a 
man whose character for benevolence and justice is one of the 
most unexceptionable that pagan antiquity can furnish ! 

18. The testimony given by the same distinguished person, 
in his letter to the emperor, to the simplicity and purity of the 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 299 

Christian manners, is worthy of notice. " This," says Pliny, 
" is their account of the religion which they professed, whether 
it deserves the name of a crime or an error, namely, that on a 
stated day they were accustomed to assemble before sunrise, 
and to repeat among themselves a hymn to Christ as a God, 
and to bind themselves by an oath not to commit any wicked- 
ness, but on the contrary, to abstain from theft, robberies, and 
adulteries ; not to violate their promise, or deny a pledge ; 
after which it is their custom to separate, and then meet again, 
sitting down to a harmless meal, of which all are invited to 
partake." 

19. There is scarcely any variety of suffering which the 
followers of Christ were not doomed to undergo. Neither 
age nor sex was spared. They were crucified ; they were 
impaled ; they were thrown to wild beasts ; they were public- 
ly whipped till their bones and sinews appeared ; they had 
their flesh torn off with pincers ; they were consumed by a 
slow fire ; and they suffered death in various other modes 
equally appalling and dreadful. The genius of man was ex- 
hausted in the invention of tortures ; and to a hasty observer, 
it might seem that the time was approaching, when Christian- 
ity, subdued and worn out with sufferings, would disappear 
from among men. 

20. This conclusion, however, would be the reverse of the 
truth. The Christians multiplied in a most extraordinary 
manner. Persecution not only united them more closely to- 
gether, but it inflamed their zeal, and quickened their activity. 
The constancy with which they endured the most cruel suffer- 
ings, produced an impression in favor of the religion by which 
they were supported and animated. Their opinions became 
general ; a great majority of the people embraced and avowed 
them ; till at length, in the year 325, during the reign of 
Constantine, the religion of Jesus became the religion of the 
Roman empire. 

21. From that time^ Christianity was not only tolerated, but 
protected and cherished. The number of edifices consecrated 
to the worship of God, was increased ; and the emperor him- 
self was not ashamed to be seen engaged in the exercises of 
religion. 



300 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

SECTION II. 
From A. D. 325 to 755. 

1. Christianity, being now supported by the Roman govern- 
ment, whose influence was felt throughout almost all the civil- 
ized world, experienced a degree of worldly prosperity before 
unknown ; but the spirit of the religion immediately declined. 
The clergy became infected with secular ambition, and were 
no longer distinguished for that purity and disinterestedness, 
which characterized the apostles and their immediate succes- 
sors. Christianity became corrupted, also, by a mixture both 
of the philosophy and the superstitions of paganism ; and the 
church was divided into a variety of sects. 

2. Some heresies, as those of the Gnostics and Cerinthians, 
date their origin as early as the apostolic age. A variety of 
others appeared in subsequent periods : but the most memo- 
rable division of the church, in its early ages, was that which 
related to Arianism. 

3. Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria, was contempoVary with 
Constantine, and had for his principal antagonist, Athana 1 sins. 
The controversy, to which his opinions gave rise, attracted the 
notice of the emperor, who, in order to determine the Catholic 
doctrine on the subject in dispute, assembled the famous Coun- 
cil of Nice, in 325. It was composed, according to some ac- 
counts, of no less than 2,000 ecclesiastics, of whom 318 were 
bishops. Th^ t opinions of Arius were condemned, and the 
Nicene creed was published as the orthodox faith. 

4. Arianism, however, was not suppressed, but continued to 
have many patrons and supporters ; and the controversy long 
divided and afflicted the church. Constantius, the son and 
successor of Constantine, and several of the subsequent em- 
perors, favored the Arians ; and the opinions of the Christian 
world too often fluctuated in compliance with the sentiments 
of its masters. Each party, in turn, labored to establish its 
victory, by unjustifiable proceedings against the other. 

5. Many hurtful follies were introduced, through erroneous 
views of what constituted the Christian life. Instead of making 
it consist in personal purity, and in the practice of piety to God 
and benevolence to man, it was conceived to consist in various 
austerities and absurd modes of mortification. The more rigid 
abstained from the most innocent gratifications. They reject- 
ed marriage, abstracted themselves from the world, and passed 
their lives in solitude, penance, and prayer. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 301 

6. Simon Stylites, a famous anchoret of the 5th century, 
became the founder of the Pillar Saints. He is said to have 
passed 37 years of his life on the top of a column, beginning 
with one of 6 cubits in height, and ending with one of 40 ; 
thus attracting the admiration of the multitude. 

7. The origin of monastic life is placed in Egypt, in the 
middle of the 3d century. In subsequent ages, convents, both 
of monks and nuns, abounded throughout Christendom. These 
institutions, in early times, contained many persons of austere 
virtue and piety ; but they became, generally, far more noted 
fo? their vices than their devotion. 

8. The order, established jn the primitive church, was ex- 
ceedingly simple. The care of each congregation was intrust- 
ed to its pastor or bishop, together with a certain number of 
assistants. Out of this primeval simplicity, the papacy grad- 
ually arose. The bishop of Rome, the metropolis of the em- 
pire, easily obtained, not only a precedence over all his breth- 
ren of other cities, but some degree of jurisdiction over such 
of them as were stationed within his reach. 

9. His authority gradually increased ; and in order to 
strengthen it further, it was pretended that St. Peter was the 
founder of the see of Rome, and, therefore, that the bishops 
of the metropolis were the successors of that apostle; yet it is 
a disputed point, whether St. Peter ever visited the Roman 
capital. In the latter part of the 4th century, the bishop of 
Rome openly declared himself head of the universal church ; 
and from that time the appellation of Pope has been appropri- 
ated to him. His claim, however, to the rank of universal 
bishop, was disputed in different parts, and particularly by the 
Patriarch of Constantinople. This circumstance led to the 
separation of the Eastern or Greek Church, which, after a long 
controversy, took place about the middle of the 11th century. 

10. In 755, the pope was raised to the rank of a temporal 
prince, by Pepin, king of France, who conferred on him the 
exarchate of Ravenna. JSince that period, the pretended suc- 
cessor of the poor and humble fisherman Peter, has united in 
his person the highest offices of king and priest. 

11. In a succeeding age, he laid claim to infallibility, and in 
the plenitude of his power, dispensed pardons for sin, and dis- 
posed of crowns and governments at his pleasure. It was the 
favorite maxim of Rome, that the pope was, by divine right, 
the supreme lord of the world, and the fountain of all author- 
ity, ecclesiastical and civil. 

2(i 



302 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

SECTION III. 
From A. D. 755 to 1517. 

1. This period may be justly denominated the period of 
darkness. Christianity seems to have become nearly obliter- 
ated, and imposture, fanaticism, and superstition, are dignified 
with its name. The lights of learning and science are like- 
wise almost extinguished : the human mind appears debased 
and bewildered in the universal darkness ; and nothing seems 
too irrational or absurd for the ignorance and credulity of the 
times. 

2. Among the most prominent objects which arrest the at- 
tention, during these dark ages, are the monastic institutions, 
or convents of monks and nuns ; relics, pilgrimages, crusades, 
and canonizations ; the doctrines of indulgences, transubstan- 
tiation, and purgatory ; the bulls and interdicts of the popes, 
and the senseless wranglings of the schools. 

3. In the beginning of the 9th century, the passion for col- 
lecting relics of the saints reached an extraordinary height ; 
many persons, some of whom were in eminent stations, travel- 
led into Judea for the purpose of obtaining them. The bodies 
of the apostles and first martyrs are said to have been dug up, 
and great quantities of bones and other relics were brought 
into Italy, and sold at enormous prices. Numerous imposi- 
tions were practised in this traffic ; the purchasers seem not 
always to have been very nice or scrupulous in their inquiries ; 
and many a devotee wept over the spine ol a dog or a jackall, 
supposing all the while he had before him the relic of an 
apostle. 

4. Monastic institutions kept pace with the passion for rel- 
ics. The madness spread throughout Christendom ; and even 
kings and great lords, unmindful of their true dignity, as well 
as their duty to society, sought, in these abodes, an asylum 
from the cares and temptations of the world. Monastic life 
had its origin, probably, in sincere, though mistaken piety. Its 
rules were originally strict, but they fell gradually into disuse. 
The monasteries daily increased in wealth, by donations from 
the rich, who were in the habit, just before their death, of be- 
stowing their property on these institutions, imagining that by 
this means they should secure the forgiveness of their sins. 
They were magnificent and commodious, and appeared more 
like the palaces of princes, richly stored with luxuries, than as 
the retreats of penitence and mortification. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 303 

5. The monasteries, however, performed an important ser- 
vice to literature, and for ages they were the abodes of what 
little learning remained in the Christian world. The monks 
were not so universally illiterate as the secular clergy, as they 
had more opportunities for study, and fewer for dissipation. 
But the most important service which the monasteries perform- 
ed, was by being secure repositories of books. By their means 
some sparks of ancient learning survived the long winter : in 
them almost all the manuscripts of remoter ages, which have 
reached us, were preserved. In this manner, to use the lan- 
guage of Hallam, " religion made a bridge, as it were, across 
the chaos, and has linked the two periods of ancient and mod' 
ern civilization." 

6. Some account of the Crusades and of Chivalry, which 
form prominent features in the history and state of society 
during this period, and which were intimately connected with 
the religion or superstition of the times, has already been given 
in a preceding part of this volume. In these ages, particu- 
larly in the 10th and 11th centuries, the passion for pilgrimage 
was carried to an extravagant height. This passion, and that 
for relics, have doubtless a foundation in human nature ; but 
in these times of superstition, they were carried to a most 
ridiculous and pernicious excess. 

7. In the 10th century, an opinion, founded on a passage in 
the Revelation, prevailed throughout Christendom, that the end 
of the world and the day of judgment were approaching. In 
consequence of this impression, prodigious numbers abandoned 
their connections, gave up all their possessions to the monas- 
teries and churches, and repaired to the Holy Land, where 
they imagined that. Jesus Christ was about to descend from 
heaven to judge the world. The church gained, at this period 
a great increase of wealth ; almost every donation made to it, 
during this century, affords evidence of the prevalence of this 
opinion, the donor commonly assigning his reason in the fol- 
lowing words ; " As the world is now drawing near its close." 
Such was the general panic, that an eclipse of the sun or moon 
occasioned the greatest terror and dismay ; cities were, in con- 
sequence, deserted by the miserable inhabitants, who fled for 
refuge to caverns and other places of concealment. 

8. During this period, many absurd doctrines were introdu- 
ced into the church. About the beginning of the 13th century, 
was established the doctrine of transubstantiation, according to 
which the bread and wine used in the sacrament of the supper, 
are changed into the real flesh and blood of Jesus Christ. 



304 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

9. The origin of the doctrine of purgatory, or a state of 
temporary punishment after death, is placed at an earlier date. 
Prayers and masses were offered up for the souls that had 
passed into this preparatory state ; all the saints in heaven 
were supplicated, in order to shorten or mitigate the punish- 
ment ; rich gifts were bestowed upon the church by the sur- 
viving friends of those for whom the benefit was sought ; and 
the dying transgressor readily parted with his possessions to 
secure it. 

10. The doctrines of absolution and indulgences, like that 
of purgatory, were fruitful sources of wealth to the clergy ; as 
they were likewise of vice and a general corruption of manners 
among all classes, by establishing a claim to the happiness of 
heaven, without the cultivation of personal virtue. Indulgen- 
ces were sold by the authority of the pope for money ; and a 
person who had purchased a plenary indulgence, might trans- 
gress, with impunity, any command of the decalogue. 

11. The influence of the pope, in this period, was far great- 
er than that of any other potentate in Christendom ; he claimed 
an authority over kings and kingdoms, and assumed the mag- 
nificent title of Master of the world. If a sovereign offended 
him, his whole kingdom was liable to be laid under an inter- 
dict, during which the churches were shut up, and the cele- 
bration of divine worship was suspended : no sacrament, ex- 
cept baptism and extreme unction, was administered ; and the 
dead were buried in the highways, without funeral rites. In 
this way the penalty fell upon those who had neither partaken 
of the offence, nor had power to prevent it. 

12. In the 11th century, during the pontificate of pope 
Gregory VII. [Hildebrand], the dominion of the church 
attained its zenith. This haughty pontiff assumed supreme 
authority, not only in spiritual, but in temporal affairs, and 
regarded the sovereigns of Europe as his vassals. He excom 
municated and deposed Henry IV., emperor of Germany, 
compelled him to appear before him as a penitent sinner, and 
to submit to a most severe and humiliating penance, by passing 
three days in the open air, during winter, with his feet and 
head bare, at the papal threshold, waiting for absolution. The 
celibacy of the clergy, which had been before attempted, Greg- 
ory rigidly enforced, with a view of separating them, as far as 
possible, from all other interests, and bringing them into a 
total dependence on the holy see. 

13. The secular clergy, who had the care of parishes, and 
whose business it was to instruct the people, were destitute of 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 305 

every qualification for their sacred office, having neither learn- 
ing nor morals. They seldom preached, for, in some periods, 
not one in a hundred could either read or write. In the 12th, 
13th, and 14th centuries, the sacred scriptures were little 
known, and many bishops had never seen a copy of them 
during their lives. 

14. The public discourses of those who undertook to preach, 
treated scarcely at all of any topic of Christianity ; but were 
made up of legends, or absurd stories relating to the lives and 
exploits of the saints. By degrees, all public instruction was 
given up ; and it was generally held, that to repeat a few forms 
in rapid succession, to undertake pilgrimages, to observe the 
holydays, and to pay tithes and perquisites to the clergy, con- 
stituted the sum of religious duty, and formed the principal 
excellence of the Christian character. 

15. In these dark and miserable times, learning was as much 
corrupted and obscured as religion. The little which existed, 
was chiefly employed about the lives and miracles of the saints, 
and other subjects of no interest or utility. The questions 
which commanded the principal attention in the schools, were 
of the most trifling and preposterous character ; and the dis- 
cussions were specimens of elaborate folly. The most cele- 
brated controversy among the schoolmen, was that between 
the Realists and Nominalists, which engaged the attention of 
the metaphysical champions of the times, and which was carried 
on by the use of the sword, as well as of the pen. 



SECTION IV. 
The Reformation, beginning in 1517. 

1. The Reformation is the most important event that has 
taken place in the religious world, since the first promulgation 
of Christianity. Various circumstances prepared the way for 
the introduction of this great revolution. The Waldenses in 
Piedmont, and the Albigenses in the south of France, had 
long borne testimony against the corruptions of the church of 
Rome. 

2. Various persons, in different parts of Europe, had formed 
more enlightened and scriptural views of religion, than were 
generally prevalent ; and by their instructions and writings, 
had produced a considerable influence. Among these, John 

26* 



306 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

Wickliffe, of England, who flourished in the 14th century, 
holds a distinguished rank. He attacked, with great boldness, 
and with powerful effect, the prevailing corruptions, translated 
the Scriptures into English, and left numerous followers, who 
were styled Wickliffites or Lollards. 

3. In the beginning of the 15th century, John Huss and 
Jerome of Prague, imbibing sentiments similar to those of 
Wickliffe, made a similar stand against the errors and corrup- 
tions of the times. Their followers, in Bohemia, were numer- 
ous ; and under their renowned leader Zisca, they took up 
arms in defence of their religion. 

4. The revival of learning had begun now to show itself 



in the principal countries of Europe. The human mind was 
awaking from the long sleep of ages; and the invention of the 
art of printing was of signal service in creating and gratifying 
the desire of knowledge, and in giving diffusion to new doc- 
trines. 

5. In the year 1517, Teizel, an agent of pope Leo JC. } be- 
gan to publish indulgences in Germany, and offer them for 
sale. The pontiff, a man of pleasure and ambition, had ex- 
hausted the papal treasury by his profuse munificence, and 
took this method to replenish it. A complete remission of 
sins, whether past, present, or future, was promised to all v* no 
would pay the stipulated sum. The offence excited by pub- 
lishing this doctrine, was heightened by the shameless impu- 
dence of the manner in which it was proclaimed by Tetzel 
and his associates, and by the gross immorality of their lives. 

6. The man who has the honor of having made an effectual 
stand against this iniquitous traffic, was Martin Luther, a pro- 
fessor of divinity in the university of Wittenberg, in Saxony. 
Luther was eminently fitted for the important part which he 
was called upon to act, by his extraordinary and varied talents, 
his unconquerable zeal, and his undaunted courage. He 
declaimed against indulgences with all the power of his elo- 
quence, and exposed, with vehement indignation, both from 
the pulpit and by the press, the vices of the monks. 

7. Leo and his agents, alarmed by the tidings of Luther's 
rapid success, proceeded against him wholly in the way of 
despotic authority. The reformer was summoned to appear 
at Augsburg, before cardinal Cajctan, who, without deigning 
to attempt to convince him of his error, commanded him to 
recant ; and propounded to him, for his belief, the following 
dogma : " That one drop of Christ's blood being sufficient to 
redeem the whole human race, the remaining quantity, which 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 307 

was shed in the garden and upon the cross, was left as a legacy 
to the chui^h, to be a treasure, from whence indulgences can 
be drawn and administered by the Roman pontiff." 

8. Luther refused to retract his opinions, till he should be 
convinced that they were erroneous. At length, in 1520, the 
pope issued a bull, denouncing destruction against him, as an 
excommunicated heretic, unless he should, within 60 days, 
publicly recant his errors, and burn his own books. 

9. This famous bull, so fatal to the papal interests, had no 
other effect upon the mind of the reformer, than that of excit- 
ing him to keener and more systematic opposition. Amidst a 
vast assemblage of people, in the town of Wittenberg, he threw 
the papal bull, together with the volumes of the canon law, 
into the flames, renounced the authority of the pope, exhorted 
the princes of Europe to shake off the oppressive yoke which 
they had so long borne, and offered thanks to Almighty God 
that he was selected as the advocate of true religion, and a 
friend to the liberties of mankind. 

10. Nor was the voice of the reformer lifted up in vain. 
The new opinions found friends in almost every country in 
Europe. In Switzerland, Zidnglius attacked indulgences 
with a courage not inferior to that of Luther himself. Fred- 
erick the Wise, elector of Saxony, and several other princes 
of Germany, favored the Reformation. 

11. In a diet held at Worms , it' was resolved that every 
secular prince should manage the ecclesiastical affairs of his 
dominions, as he himself should judge most proper, till the 
meeting of a general council. But at a subsequent diet, this 
resolution was reversed ; and against its reversal, the elector 
of Saxony and other princes who favored the Reformation, en- 
tered their solemn protest. From this circumstance, the name 
of Protestants had its origin ; a name since applied to all the 
sects that have withdrawn, upon whatever account, from the 
church of Rome. 

12. The sacred scriptures were translated by Luther into 
the German language, and read with astonishing avidity. The 
learned and mild Melancthon, who had assisted Luther in the 
translation, drew up the celebrated Confession of Faith, which 
was presented in behalf of the Protestants at the diet of Augs- 
burg, in 1530. 

13. The Reformation soon extended to Sweden and Den- 
mark ; and it was firmly established in the city of Geneva, and 
the Swiss cantons, by the celebrated Calvin. It found friends 
also in France, the Netherlands, Spain, Italy, Hungary, and 



308 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

Bohemia. To crown the whole, Henry VIII. of England, 
having quarrelled with the pope, on account of his divorce, 
renounced the papal authority, and by means of the prudent 
management of Cranmer, the reformed doctrines were, at 
length, effectually established in that kingdom. Scotland also 
was soon emancipated from the papal superstition and tyranny, 
by the unwearied labors of the intrepid and zealous Knox. 

14. The Reformers were singularly qualified for the im- 
portant services which they performed. They were not, it is 
true, free from the faults and prejudices of the age in which 
they lived ; yet they were men of great talents and great 
virtues ; and with the friends of religion, literature, and lib- 
erty, their names are deservedly associated with sentiments 
of gratitude and veneration. 

15. The enemies of the Reformation were numerous and 
powerful. The greater part of the sovereigns of Europe, 
from considerations either of principle or policy, continued 
to be attached to the ancient system. 

16. Since this great schism in the religious world, the influ- 
ence of the court of Rome in Christendom, has bten greatly 
diminished. The Roman Catholic church has also, in most 
countries where it is established, become more enlightened 
than it was previous to the Reformation ; but inasmuch as it 
inculcates implicit faith in its own infallibility, and discoun- 
tenances the general circulation of the Bible, and the free 
perusal of it by the laity, it is much less favorable to the dis- 
semination of knowledge, more especially religious knowledge, 
than is Protestantism, which maintains the sufficiency of the 
Scriptures, and the right of private judgment. It will, ac- 
cordingly, be found that, in Protestant countries, the common 
people are much better informed than in Catholic countries. 



[For a chronological view of some of the -principal events 
in Ecclesiastical History , see page 338.] 



CHRONOLOGY. 



Chronology is a science which treats of the natural and 
artificial divisions of time ; and it refers to certain points or 
eras the various events recorded in history. 

Various eras have been adopted in different ages, and by- 
different nations, in the computation of time, and in adjusting 
the dates of events recorded in history. Some of the most 
important only of these eras can be here mentioned. 

1. The Olympiads. The Greeks computed their time by 
the era of the Olympiads, which date from the year 776 B. C. ; 
being the year in which Coroebus was successful at the Olym- 
pic games. This era differed from all others, in being reck- 
oned by periods of four years, instead of single years. Each 
period of four years was called an Olympiad, and in marking 
a date, the year and the Olympiad were both mentioned. 

2. The Foundation of Rome. The Romans reckoned 
their time from the date assigned for the founding of Rome, 
corresponding to the year 753 B. C. This era is designated 
by the letters A. U. C, or ab urbe conditd, " from the building 
of the city." 

3. The Christian Era. The Christian era, which is used 
by Christian nations, is reckoned from the birth of Christ, 
which, according to the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, 
took place A. M. [in the year of the world] 4004; according 
to the Samaritan text, A. M. 4700 ; and according to the 
Septuagint, A. M. 5372. The computation according to the 
Hebrew text is followed in this work ; and it is generally 
adopted in English literature. The birth of Christ is supposed 
to have taken place about four years earlier than the period 
assigned to it in the vulgar era. 



310 CHRONOLOGY. 

The computation by the Christian era first began to be used 
in the 6th century. The Roman or Julian year was followed,, 
consisting of 365 days and 6 hours, which exceeded the true 
time of the solar year by a little more than 11 minutes. This 
erroneous computation had, in the year 1582, occasioned a 
deviation of 10 days from the true time ; and in that year 
(1582) pope Gregory introduced a reform into the calendar, 
by taking 10 days from the month of October. The calendar 
thus reformed (called New Style) was immediately introduced 
into all Catholic countries. The reckoning according to the 
Julian year (called Old Style) continued to be used in Eng- 
land till the year 1752, when 11 days were omitted in Sep- 
tember, the day after the 2d being accounted the 14th. — The 
Greeks and Russians still use the Old Style. 

4. The Era of the Hegira. The era of the Hegira, which 
dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, is 
used by Mahometan nations, and corresponds to the 16th of 
July, A. D. 622. 

5. The American Era. The era most used in this country, 
next to the Christian era, is that of the Declaration of the In- 
dependence of the United States, which took place on the 4th 
of July, 1776. 

Comparison of different Eras. 

Year. 

C 3228 of the Creation of the World. 
The Era of the Olympiads j 23 before the Foundation of 

corresponds to j 776 before Christ. [Rome. 

(. 1398 before the Hegira. 

( 3251 of the Creation of the World. 
The Foundation of Rome j 4 of the 6th Olympiad. 

corresponds to J 753 before Christ. 

' 1375 before the Hegira. 

r 4004 of the Creation of the World. 
The Christian Era corre- j 1 of the 195th Olympiad, 
sponds to j 753 of the Foundation of Rome. 

(. 622 before the Hegira. 

£ 4626 of the Creation of the World. 
The Hegira corresponas J 3 of the 348th Olympiad. 

to j 1375 of the Foundation of Rome, 

f 622 of the Christian Era. 



CHRONOLOGY. 31 J 



Chronological Table 

In the following table the most important epochs are given, 
together with a system of Artificial Memory, to facilitate the 
recollecting of dates. This system is derived chiefly from 
Dr. Grey's Memoria Technica. 

In order to facilitate remembering dates, a word is formed 
of the name recorded, or of the first syllables of it, together 
with one or more syllables added to it, and made up of numeral 
letters. For this purpose, a vowel and a consonant are assign- 
ed to each digit, and a or 6 denote 1 ; e or d 2 ; i or t 3 ; 
or f 4 ; and so on, in the following series : 



a 


e 


1 





u 


au 


01 


00 


ou 


a% 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 





b 


d 


t 


/ 


V 


5 


P 


k 


n 


z 



These letters may easily be remembered by considering 
that the first five vowels represent 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ; that the 
diphthong au, which is composed of a 1 and u 5, denotes 6 ; 
that oi, for the same reason, denotes 7, 00, 8, and ou, 9. The 
diphthong ai is put for the cipher 0, but without any similar 
reason. 

The first consonant, b, denotes 1 ; d, the first letter of duo, 
the Latin for two, denotes 2 ; t, the initial of the word three, 
is put for 3 ; f, for the same reason, for 4 ; v (V being the 
Roman numeral for five) denotes 5 ; s, the initial of six, is 
put for 6 ; p, from septem, the Latin for seven, denotes 7 ; k, 
from the Greek okto, eight, is put for 8 ; n, the initial of the 
word nine, denotes 9 ; and z, the final letter, is put for 0. 

Having perfectly learned the foregoing series, the student 
may proceed to exercise himself in the formation and resolu- 
tion of dates, in the following manner : 



10 


189 


342 


390 


659 


1492 


1776 


1830 


az 


boon 


tod 


tonz 


sun 


afne 


apois 


booiz 



The system may be extended at pleasure ; and by the for- 
mation of words in the manner described, it will be easy to fix 
in the mind the time of the death of illustrious men, the com- 
mencement of the reigns of kings, and other events, of which 
it is desirable to remember the date. It will be easy to re- 
member whether the event took place before or after Christ.— - 
Besides the series of letters already explained, g may denote a 
hundred, and th a thousand. 



312 CHRONOLOGY. 

Table. 

4004 Creation of the world Cre-faizo 

2348 Deluge ~De\-etok 

2247 Babel built ; mankind dispersed Bab-eoop 

2188 The kingdom of Egypt commences Egypt-eoooA 

1921 Calling of Abraham Abrah-anab 

1556 Athens founded by Cecrops Ath-avus 

1493 Cadmus brings letters into Greece and builds Thebes . Cadmus-/«mi 

1491 Israelites brought out of Egypt by Moses ..... Israel-Z>orca 

1263 Argonautic expedition Argonaut-fes< 

1184 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks Troy -bako 

1075 Saul king of Israel , ... S&ul-azpu 

1012 The Temple of Solomon founded Templ-azai 

884 Lycurgus reforms the laws of Lacedsemon .... hycmg-ooko 

776 The first Olympiad begins Olym-pois 

753 Rome founded by Romulus Rom-put 

536 Cyrus founds the Persian empire Cyru-uis 

509 Tarquin expelled from Rome Tarquin-uain 

490 Battle of Marathon Marath-oraz 

400 Socrates put to death Socrat-ojaz 

324 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon Alexand-zWo 

312 The era of the Seleucidoe. Seleucid-zte 

146 Greece reduced to a Roman province Greece-Ms 

31 Battle of Aclium ; end of Roman commonwealth . . Actium-fa 
Birth of Christ ; 4 years before the vulgar era. 

70 Jerusalem taken and destroyed Jerusal-oz'z 

98 Trajan emperor of Rome Trajan-noo 

306 Constantine emperor of Rome Constan-tau 

476 End of the Western Roman empire Rom-fois 

622 Era of the Hegira, or Flight of Mahomet Hegira-swf 

800 Charlemagne emperor of the West Charlemag-oo^i 

827 The kingdom of England begins under Egbert . . . England-fop 

1066 William the Conqueror king of England Wi\\-baisau 

1096 First Crusade to the Holy Land Cmsad-azous 

1227 Genghis-khan's conquests in Asia Genghis-ieJoz 

1258 End of the Caliphate or Saracen empire Caliphat-atfu/f 

1340 Gunpowder invented at Cologne, by Schwartz . . . Gunpowder-afos 
1370 Wickliffe propagates his doctrines in England . . . Wickliff-afoi* 

1398 Timur Bek or Tamerlane's conquests . Timur-Z?m£ 

1440 The art of Printing invented Ynoi-afoz 

1453 Eastern Empire ends ; Turks take Constantinople . . Turks-aftit 

1492 America discovered by Columbus America-forte 

1517 The Reformation in Germany begun by Luther . . . Reform-amp 
L003 Union of England and Scotland under James I. . . Jam-asait 

1620 Plymouth, Mass., settled by the Puritans Plymouth-foyer 

1688 Revolution in Britain Revolut-asoo£ 

1776 Independence of the United States declared Independen-apei* 

1789 French Revolution Revolut-apoon 

1804 Bonaparte crowned emperor of France Bonapart-foo*© 

1815 Battle of Waterloo Waterl-aAfot 



CHART OF HISTORY. 



DESCRIPTION AND ILLUSTRATION. 

1. This Chart affords means of facilitating the study of 
History, similar to what are afforded by maps in the study of 
Geography. It supposes time to be flowing, in a stream, from 
the left hand to the right ; and represents, at one view, the 
principal states and empires which have existed in the world, 
together with their origin, revolutions, decline, and fall. 

2. Those who may make use of this Chart, are supposed to 
be conversant with the common principles of Geography, and 
to understand the relative situation and importance of the dif- 
ferent countries which are represented. It will be readily 
seen, that the spaces which represent the several countries on 
the Chart, do not give any exact idea of the extent of those 
countries, but of the revolutions which they have undergone, 
and, in some degree, of their comparative importance in history. 
Those parts of the world which are almost unknown in history 
(as for example, all Africa except Egypt and the Barbary 
states), are not represented at all on the Chart. 

3. In the arrangement of the countries, the geographical 
order is generally followed. It unavoidably happens, that, 
owing to conquests and other acquisitions, the several parts 
of an empire or state, cannot always be placed in a contiguous 
position. To remedy this inconvenience, recourse has been had 
to coloring the different parts of the same empire with the same 
color, by means of which the eye can embrace, at one view, 
the various territories, of which it was, at any given period, com- 
posed. The colors fit for this purpose are so few, that a repe- 
tition of some of them has been necessary ; but they are applied 
in such a manner as not to be likely to mislead the student. 

4. The scale of the main body of the Chart, comprises a 
period of 2,700 years ; namely, from the year B. C. 800, to 
the end of the 19th century. This interval is divided into 27 
equal parts, by perpendicular lines, extending from the top to 
the bottom, each space between the lines denoting the period 
of 100 years. 

5. To the left hand of that portion of the Chart appropriated 
to America, are represented the principal states that flourished 
in remote antiquity, from the time of the Deluge to the year 
800 before the Christian Era. 

6. The several countries of which the history is delineated 
are represented by spaces included between horizontal lines. 

27 



314 CHART OF HISTORY. 

The slant lines denote the gradual conquest of a country; as, 
for example, the conquest of the Britons by the Romans was 
commenced A. D. 43. but not completed till 84. 

7. In order to ascertain the date of any event or revolution in 
the history represented on the Chart, add the figures at the line 
denoting the event, to the next century, if before Cbrist, on the 
right hand, and if after Christ, on the left hand, and the sum 
will give the date before or after Christ, as the case may be. 

8. Thus It appears that Egypt dates from 2188 B, C. ; the 
Calling of Abraham 1921 ; the foundation of Rome 753 B. C; 
that Macedonia was annexed to the Roman Empire 168 B. C. ; 
that the Heruli conquered Italy, and put an end to the Western 
Roman Empire, in the year 476 after Christ ; and that the 
Turks put an end to the Eastern Empire, in 1453. 

9. By carrying the eye horizontally upon the Chart, from the 
left hand to the right, one may see the succession of states and 
empires ; their rise, progress, and fall ; of what states they were 
composed, and what states rose from their ruins. 

10. By carrying the eye vertically on the Chart, from the 
top to the bottom, one may see what states and empires were 
flourishing at any given era. At the period of 500 years B. C, 
it will be seen that the Persian Empire was much the most 
considerable then existing ; that it had swallowed up the Baby- 
lonian empire, and various other countries in Asia ; and also 
Egypt; that the Grecian States existed separate and indepen- 
dent ; that the republic of Rome was of very small extent ; and 
that the nations of the middle and north of Europe were un- 
conquered and independent. 

1 1. At the period of A. D. 100, it will be seen that the Roman 
Empire embraced almost all the then known world ; that the 
Britons had been recently subdued, but that the Irish, Scots, 
and the northern nations of Europe, and also the Parthians, 
Jlrabs, Hindoos, and Chinese (nations then little known), were 
not conquered. 

12. At the period of A. D. 800, it will be seen that the three 
principal empires were those of the Saracens and the Franks, 
and the Eastern or Greek Empire ; that the Western Empire of 
the Romans had been, for upwards of three centuries, extinct ; 
and that the kingdom of the Lombards had been recently ter- 
minated ; that England was under the government of the Saxon 
Heptarchy ; that Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were independent, 
and the northern kingdoms not yet formed ; that the temporal 
dominion of the Pope had commenced ; that the Saracens were 
in possession of the greater part of Spain, the whole of Arabia 
and Persia, a great part of the Eastern, or Greek Empire, all 
Egypt and Barbary. 

13. At the period of A. D. 1300, it appears that the three 
kingdoms of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, were separate and 
ndependent ; that a large part of the country which now forms 



CHART OF HISTORY. 315 

the Russian Empire, was in the possession of the Moguls ; that 
Poland was an independent kingdom, but that Lithuania was 
separate ; that England was in possession of Wales and Ireland, 
but not of Scotland ; that Bohemia and Hungary were indepen- 
dent ; that a considerable portion of France belonged to Eng- 
land ; that Lorraine, Alsace, and Burgundy were independent 
of France ; that Italy and Spain comprised various states, the 
latter being partly in possession of the Moors ; that Portugal 
had become an independent kingdom ; that the Eastern Empire 
was still in existence; that the Moguls were in possession 
of Persia, a part of the Eastern or Greek Empire (modern 
Turkey), and China, as well as a part of Russia ; that the king- 
dom of Jerusalem had fallen into the possession of the Mame- 
lukes ; and that the Mamelukes also possessed Egypt. 

14. At the period of 1800, it appears that Denmark was in 
possession of Norway, whic h was soon after annexed to Sweden ; 
that the kingdom of Poland had been dismembered between 
Russia, Austria, and Prussia, all of which had now become 
important sovereignties ; that Holland, the Netherlands, and a 
great part of Italy, had been recently annexed to France, but 
were soon after again separated from it ; that Naples had 
become an independent kingdom ; that the Turks were in pos- 
session of a great part of the countries most celebrated in an- 
cient history ; that the Wahabees had got possession of a great 
part of Arabia, and the English of Hindostan ; that the English 
possessed Canada ; that the United States had become inde- 
pendent of England ; that the Spanish provinces in America 
belonged still to Spain, and Brazil to Portugal, but that soon 
afterwards they all became independent. 

15. The figures on the left hand of the American stales denote 
the time of the conquest or settlement of each ; those on the 
right hand, the trme when each became independent. Thus it 
appears that Virginia was settled by the English in 1607, and 
JYeiv England in 1620 ; that the United States became indepen- 
dent in 1776 ; that Mexico was conquered by the Spaniards in 
1521, and became independent in 1821. 

16. The four great empires of antiquity, as may be seen by 
the Chart, were the Assyrian or Babylonian, the Persian, the 
Macedonian, and the Roman. 

17. The Assyrian or Babylonian Empire was the most ancient, 
and was succeeded, in 536, by the Persian Empire, which was 
swallowed up, 330 B. C, by the Macedonian Empire. This 
latter empire, which, in its extensive form, was of short dura- 
tion, was dissolved 301 B. C. 

18. The Roman Empire was much the most powerful empire 
of antiquity, and from about half a century before Christ, to the 
latter part of the 5th century after Christ, when the Western 
Empire was conquered by the Heruli, embraced the greater 
part of the then known world. 



316 CHART OF HISTORY. 

19. The Heruli were supplanted by the Ostrogoths, that is, 
Eastern Goths ; the latter by the Greeks ; and these by the Lom- 
bards, who retained possession of Italy till 774, when they were 
conquered by the Franks, whose empire, during several centu- 
ries, was the most formidable in Europe. In 843, it was divided 
into three monarchies, France, Germany, and Italy. 

20. After the fall of the Western Empire of the Romans, the 
Franks, Goths, Vandals, Huns, Lombards, and other barbarous 
nations, obtained possession of the principal part of Europe. 

21. The empire of the Saracens commenced before the middle 
of the 7th century, and continued through that and the 8th and 
the 9th centuries, flourishing and powerful ; but was at length 
broken into various parts, and in 1258, the Caliphate of Bagdad 
terminated. 

22. The empire of the Moguls was widely extended, in the 
early part of the 13th century, under the mighty conqueror Gen- 
ghiz-Khan ; and in the latter part of the 14th century, Timur 
Bek, or Tamerlane, a Tartar, ran a similar career of conquest. 

23. By the Chart, it appears that, before the Christian era, 
England was inhabited by the Britons, who were conquered by 
the Romans in the first century after Christ, and continued sub- 
ject till 410 ; that the Saxon Heptarchy was commenced in 455, 
completed in 585, and continued till 827, when England became 
one kingdom under Saxon monarchs ; that the Danes were pos- 
sessed of the kingdom from 1013 to 1041 ; that the Saxons then 
regained possession, and held it till 1066, when they were 
conquered by the Normans, under William the Conqueror ; that 
Ireland was annexed to England in 1172, Wales in 1283, and 
Scotland in 1603 ; and that England held possessions in France 
from 1066 to 1558. 

The changes of other states and kingdoms, delineated on the Chart, 
will be easily understood. 

Questions on the * Chart of History. 

1. What are some of the states and empires that flourished from 
the Deluge to 800 B. C. ? 2. How long before Christ was the Deluge f. 

3. When was Babel built ? 

4. From what period does Babylon date? 5. Egypt? 6. Sicyon in 
Greece ? 7. What other cities in Greece were founded before 1400 
B. C. ? 8. What is the date of the Argonautic Expedition ? 

9. What is the period of Lycurgus ? 10. When did the kingdom 
of Troy end ? 11. What is the date of the Calling of Abraham ? 

12. When were the Israelites in Egypt ? 13. When did they enter 
Canain ? 14. When were they first governed by a king ? 

15. When was the kingdom divided into the Ten Tribes of Israel 
and Judah ? 

16. When was Israel incorporated with the Assyrian Empire? 

* Note. By the Chart it appears, that Babylon teas founded 2227 
B. C. : Siqyon 2089 B. C. : Argos 1856 B. C, &c. 



CHART OF HISTORY. 317 

17. When was Judah added to the Babylonian Empire? 

18. When was Phoenicia annexed to the Babylonian Empire ? 

19. When did the Babylonian Empire end ? 20. What empire suc- 
ceeded it ? 21. When did the Persian Empire begin and end? 

22. By what empire was it succeeded ? 23. When was Egypt 
conquered by the Persians ? 24. When by the Macedonians ? 

25. When were Miens, Sparta, Thebes, &c. annexed to the Mace- 
donian Empire ? 26. When was the Macedonian Empire dissolved ? 

27. When was the kingdom of Macedonia annexed to the Roman 
Empire ? 28. When did the Ptolemies govern Egypt ? 

29. When did the Seleucidce govern Syria? 30. When did the 
Ptolemies govern Judea? 31. When the Maccabees ? 

32. What is the date of the foundation of Rome? 

33. What is the date of the commencement of the Republic ? 

34. What were some of the nations first conquered by the Romans ? 

35. When were the Cisalpine Gauls conquered? 36. Macedonia? 
37. Greece or the Acha-an League? 38. The Carthaginians? 39, 
The Gauls ? 40. The Helvetii? 41. Syria? 42. Judea? 43. Egypt? 
44. The Britons? 

45. During what centuries was the Roman Empire most extensive ? 

46. When did the Roman dominion over the Britons end ? 
47. 'When did the Suevi obtain possession of Spain? 

48. When did the Her'uli conquer Italy ? 

49. When did the empire of the Franks begin? 

50. During what centuries was it most extensive ? 

51 . When did the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy begin and end ? 

52. In what century did the Saracen Empire commence ? 

53. In what three centuries was it most flourishing? 

54. What are the modern names of the countries which it embraced ? 

55. When did the Caliphate of Bagdad terminate ? 

56. When did the Greek Empire of Nice terminate? 

57. In what century was the Eastern or Greek Empire governed by 
French Emperors ? 58. When did the Eastern or Greek Empire end ? 

59. By whom was it conquered ? 

Modern Part. 

1. In what centuries was the empire of the Moguls most flourish- 
ing ? 

2. When were the Tartars in possession of Persia, &c. ? 

3. Who anciently inhabited Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and 
Russia ? 

4. When were Sweden, Norway, and Denmark all united together ? 

5. With what country was .Norway connected from 1448 to 1814 ? 

6. In what centuries did the Moguls or Tartars possess a part of 
Russia ? 

7. When was Poland divided between Russia, Austria, and Prussia? 

8. Who were the ancient inhabitants of England ? 

9. In what centuries were the Romans in possession of Britain ? 

10. In what centuries did the Saxon Heptarchy exist ? 

11. When did the Saxon Heptarchy end, and the kingdom under 
the Saxon monarchs begin ? 12. When did the Danes obtain pos- 
session of England? 13. When the JYormans ? 

14- When was Ireland added to England ? 15. Wales? 16. Scotland ? 
17. In what centuries did England hold possessions in France ? 
27* 



318 CHART OF HISTORY. 

18. When was Bohemia annexed to the house of Austria? 19, 
When Hungary ? 

20. When was the empire of the Franks divided into the three 
sovereignties of Germany, France, and Italy ? 

21. When did the empire of Germany end? 

22. When did the republic of Holland begin and end ? 

23. What nation held possessions in France from 1066 to 1558 ? 

24. What countries were annexed to France a little before 1800 ? 

25. When did the republic of Switzerland commence ? 

26. In what centuries did Naples belong to Spain ? 

27. When did Naples become independent ? 

28. When did the dominion of the Mcors in Spain cease ? 

29. How many centuries has Spain been united in one kingdom ? 

30. When did the kingdom of Portugal commence ? 

31. During a part of what centuries was it united with Spain? 

32. When did the empire of the Turks commence ? 

33. How many centuries have their dominions been as extensive 
as at present ? 

34. When did the Sophis or Shahs get the possession of all Persia ? 

35. What different people have been in possession of Persia, since 
the downfall of the ancient Persian empire ? 

36. When did the dominion of the Wahabees in Arabia commence ? 

37. When did the English dominion in India begin ? 

38. When did the Mantchew Tartars gain possession of China? 

39. What different nations have possessed Egijpt since 800 B. C. ? 

40. When did the Turks get possession of Egypt? 

41. What nation first settled Canada? 

42. When did the English gain possession of Canada ? 

43. When and by whom was Virginia settled ? 44. New York ? 
45. New England? 46. Pennsylvania? 

47. When did the United States become independent? 

48. Which country on the continent of America was first settled by 
Europeans ? 49. When was Mexico conquered by the Spaniards ? 

50. What ' other countries were soon after colonized by the 
Spaniards? 51. By whom was Brazil colonized? 

52. Which of the countries in South America first became inde- 
pendent ? 53. What others soon followed ? 

54. How long did Spain possess Mexico ? 



SACRED HISTORY. 



The historical parts of the Bible treat chiefly of the history of the 
Israelites or Je ics. The other principal source of information, in ad- 
dition to the Scriptures, relating to the ancient history of the Israel- 
ites, is to be found in the writings of Josephus, a Jewish historian, 
who lived in the time of the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans. 
They were descended from Abraham, who was called, 427 years 
after the Deluge, and 1921 B. C.j to separate himself " from his 
kindred and his father's house" [See Genesis xii], and who received 
a promise that the Messiah should be of his posterity. 

They were called Hebrews, as is commonly supposed, from Ehcr or 
Heber, an ancestor of Abraham ; Israelites, from Jacob, who was sur- 
named Israel ; and Jews, from Judah, one of the twelve sons of Jacob, 
the head or patriarch of the principal of the Twelve Tribes. 

Jacob with his sons and their families, consisting of 70 persons, 
migrated from Canaan to Egypt, 1706 B. C, and their posterity were, 
in that country, reduced to slavery. After a residence of 215 years, 
they were liberated from Egyptian bondage by Moses, the great He- 
brew Lawgiver. 

After wandering 40 years in the wilderness, they took possession 
of Canaan, under the direction of Joshua. 

From the entrance into Canaan to the commencement of the reign 
of Saul, a period of 356 years, they were governed by a succession 
of Judges. — A view of the succession of the Kings of Israel and 
Judah, during the continuance of the monarchies, is given in the 
Tables I. and 77. on the following pages. 

The most flourishing periods of the Israelitish monarchy was 
during the reigns of David and Solomon. 

The sceptre of Judah descended regularly, except during the usur- 
pation of Mhaliah, from father to son, in the family of David, till the 
death of Josiah, three of whose sons were, for a short time, raised to 
the throne. 

During nearly all the period of the Old Testament history of the 
Israelites, the nation manifested a strong tendency to forsake the 
worship of the true God, and to fall into idolatry. Many of the 
kings of Judah, and all the kings of the Ten Tribes, were promoters 
of idolatrous worship. 

The history of the Ten Tribes, subsequent to their captivity by 
Shalmaneser, is buried in utter obscurity. The Jews, or subjects of 
the kingdom of Judah, after the 70 years' Babylonish captivity, 
returned, by permission of Cyrus, under Zerubbabel their governor, 
and rebuilt Jerusalem and the Temple. 

After this period, they were subject successively to the Persians, 
the Ptolemies of Egypt, the Syrians, and the Maccabees, till 63 B. C, 
when they were subjected to the Romans by Pompey. A. D. 70, 
Jerusalem was taken and destroyed by the Romans under Titus, and 
since that event, the Jews have been dispersed in all parts of the 
world. 



320 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



B.C. 



Table I. — The Kingdoms of Israel and Jhdah. 



1100 
95 



55 



14 



1000 

75 
58 
55 

14 

900 

89 
85 
84 
78 
39 

10 
800 
58 
42 
26 
700 
98 

43 
41 
09 

09 

600 

98 

98 



Kings. 



Saul 



David 



Solomon 



Rehoboam 

Abijah 

Asa 

Jehoshaphat 



Jehoram 
Ahaziah 
(Athaliah) 
Joash (or 
Amaziah 

Uzziah 



Jotham 

Ahaz 

Hezekiah 



Manasseh 

Anion 
Josiah 

Jehoahaz (or 
Jehoiakim (or 



40 



Kingdom of Israel: 3 Kings .- 120 Years. 



40 



40 



Jehoiachin(or 
Zedekiah 



The son of Kish, the first king of Israel ; 
is engaged in war with the Philistines 
Amalekites, &c. ; persecutes David, 
who is anointed by Samuel in his 
stead : Saul and Jonathan slain by the 
Philistines. 

The son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah ; 
is first proclaimed king of Judah, af- 
terwards of all Israel; makes Jerusa- 
lem the seat of his kingdom ; subdues 
the Philistines, Edomites, Amalekites, 
Moabites, &c. 

Celebrated for wisdom; has a pacific & 
prosperous reign ; builds the Temple. 

After the death of Solomon, ten Tribes 
revolt from his son Rehoboam, and 
two separate kingdoms are formed, 
Judah and Israel. 

Km. of Judah : 19 Kings : 387 Years. 



.Prophets. 

Samuel 



Nathan 
Gad 



Revolt of the Ten Tribes. 

Gains a great victory over Jeroboam. 

A religious king ; suppresses idolatry ; 

has a prosperous reign. 
A religious king ; a prosperous reign ; 

joins Ahab in a war against Syria. 



An idoiater; slays his 6 brothers. 
!s slain by Jehu. 

Usurps ; slays all the royal family. 
Tehoash) defeated by the Syrians. 
Defeats the Edomites ; is defeated by 

Joash ; is slain in a conspiracy. 
Defeats the Philistines and Arabians ; 

is smitten with leprosy. 



Has a prosperous reign. 
Defeated by Pekah with great loss. 
An excellent king ; has a prosperous 
reign. — Sennacherib's repulse. 



Ahijab 



Iddo 

Shemaiah 

Azariah 

Micaiah 
Elijah 



Elisha 

Jehoiada 
Zachariah 

Jonah 
Amos 



An impious king ; is carried by Esar- 
•haddon in chains to Babylon. 

An idolatrous king ; is murdered. 

An excellent king ; great reform : slain 

Shallum); is carried captive into Egypt. 

Eliakim) ; is carried in chains to Baby- 
lon. 



Jeconiah) ; is carried to Babylon. 

The king and the nation carried cap- 
tive to Babylon. The city and tem- 
ple destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, 588 
B.C. 

The captivity lasted 70 years, from 606 
B. C. to 1st year of Cyrus, 536 B. C. 



Obed 
Hosea 
Micah 
Nahum 



Isaiah 
Joel 

Zephaniah 
Habakkuk 



Obadiah 

Jeremiah 

Ezekiel 

Daniel 

Haggai 

Zechariah 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



321 



Table II. The Kingdom of Israel, or the Ten Tribes. 
19 Kings; 254 Years. 



B.C. 



1000 



900 



800 



75 



39 



Kings. 


-3 iS 


Jeroboam I. 


21 


JNadab 


1 


Baasha 


24 


Elah 


1 


Zimri 


> 


Omri 


12 


Ahab 


21 


Ahaziah 


1 


Jehoram 


12 


Jehu 


28 


Jehoahaz 


17 


Joash 


14 


Jeroboam II. 


41 


Zechariah 


h 


Shallum 




Menahem 


10 


Pekaiah 


2 


Pekah 


20 


Hoshea 


18 



Son of jVebat, becomes king of the Ten Tribes, 
resides first at Schechem, afterwards at Tirzah; 
institutes the worship of Golden Calves, one at 
Bethel and another at Dan, and seduces the 
people to idolatry : overcome by Abijah. 

Son of Jeroboam ; slain by Baasha. 

Usurps the throne, and destroys all the family 
of Jeroboam : at war with Asa. 

Son of Baasha, is slain by Zimri. 

Usurps the throne ; destroys the race of Baasha; 
and after a reign of 7 days is overcome by Omri. 

Founds Samaria, and makes it the capital. 

Son of Omri ; notorious for impiety, as well as 
his queen Jezebel ; seizes the vineyard of JYa 
both; wars against Ramoth Gilead; is slain. 



Son of Ahab : wounded by a fall, and dies. 

Samaria besieged by Benhadad, king of Syria ; 
the inhabitants in great distress. 

Destroys Jezebel and all the family of Ahab, and 
the priests of Baal, but maintains the wor- 
ship of Jeroboam's golden calves. 

Oppressed by Hazael, king of Syria. 

Jehoash, defeats Benhadad II. king of Syria; 
also Amaziah ; takes Jerusalem. 

A warlike sovereign, has a prosperous reign. 



After this reign the kingdom hastens to its 
downfall, and its subsequent history is re- 
plete with treason, disorder, and misrule. 

An Interregnum of 11 years. 

Is slain by Shallum, who usurps the throne. 

After a reign of one month is killed by Menahem. 

Becomes tributary to Pul, King of Assyria. 

Is murdered by Pekah, one of his captains. 

Unites with Rezin, king of Syria, and besieges 
Jerusalem ; defeats Ahaz ; is overthrown by 
Tiglathpileser, who carries a part of the Israel- 
ites to Syria : slain by Hoshea. 

Becomes tributary to Shalmaneser, king of As- 
syria ; but applies to So, king of Egypt, and 
revolts. Shalmaneser besieges, takes, and de- 
molishes Samaria, carries the Israelites captive 
into Assyria and Media, and puts an end to the 
kingdom, B. C. 721. 



The subsequent history of the Ten Tribes is buried in obscurity. The 
country was afterwards repeopled by colonies from Assyria, whose de- 
scendants adopted the Law of Moses as contained in the Pentateuch, 
which they regarded as the only inspired book; and they were called 
Samaritans from the chief city of the country. The Samaritans built 
a temple on Mount Gerizim. They were always at variance with the 
Jews by whom they were despised and hated as heretics. 



322 TABLES OF HISTORY. 



?£• Table III.— GRECIAN HISTORY 

300 



Sth 

700 

7th 



6th 



500 



5th 



76 First Olympiad begins. 

56 Cherops, the first Decennial Archon in Athens. 

43 First Messenian War ; — ends 724, and ItJwme taken. 

85 Second Messenian War ; — ends 671 , the Messenians subdued. 

34 Creon, the first Annual Archon in Athens. 

24 Draco forms his bloody code of laws for Athens. 

Solar Eclipses first calculated by Thales. 
94 Solon forms a new code of laws for Athens. 
62 Comedy and Tragedy first exhibited in Athens. 
60 Pisistratus tyrant of Athens ; a splendid rule. 
60 Temples first built in Greece. 

Literature encouraged : Homer 's poems collected into a vol- 
ume. 
24 Hippias and Hipparchus, the Pisistratidce, govern Athens. 
1.4 Hipparchus slain ; and (510) Hippias expelled. 



90 Persian War. — Victory gained by Miltiades at Marathon. 
80 Conflict of Leonidas at Thermopylae. 

30 Victory gained by Themistocles at Salamis. 
79 Victories of the Greeks at Platcea (Aristides), and Mycale. 
70 Victory gained by Cimon on the Eurymedon. 
64 Third Messenian War begins. 
45 Herodotus reads his History at the Olympic games. 

31 PeLoponnesian War begins. — 430. Plague at Athens. 
5 Lysander defeats the Athenians at AZgos Potamos. 
3 The Thirty Tyrants expelled. — Philosophy and the Arts. 

Xenophons Retreat with the 10,000. Death of Socrates. 



Uh 



300 



3d 



94 Jigesilaus defeats the Athenians, Thebans, &c, at Coronea. 
87 Peace of Antalcidas between the Spartans and Persians. 
71 Epaminondas of Thebes defeats the Spartans at Leuctra. 
63 Epaminondas defeats the Spartans at Mantinea. 
56 First Sacred War. — 34->. Philip takes Olynthus. 
39 Second Sacred War. — 348. Philip's victory at Chceronea. 
34 Alexander invades Persia ; his victory on the Granicus. 
33 Battle of Issus. — 332. Tyre taken, and Egypt conquered. 
30 Battle of Arbela; Persia conquered. 224. Alexander dies. 
1 Battle of Ipsus ; Alexander's empire divided. 



98 Athens taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
81 The Achcean League begins ; also JEtolian League. 
80 Greece ravaged by the Gauls under Brennus. 
73 Pyrrhus, having ravaged Greece, is killed at Argos. 
64 The Arundelian Marbles composed. 
25 Cleomenes reforms the government of Sparta. 
20 War between the Achceans, under Aratus, and the iEtolians, 
6 The Achceans, under Philopcemen, defeat the iEtolians. 



2d 



97 Battle of Cynocephale ; the Macedonians defeated by the 

Romans. 
63 Battle of Pydna; the Macedonians defeated by the Romans. 

and Macedonia reduced to a Roman province. 
47 The Achceans defeated by the Romans under Metellus. 
46 Corinth taken by the Romans under Mummius, and Greece 

reduced to a Roman province under the name of Achaia 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



323 



Table 


V. — Chronology of Grecian Literature. 


I 


Statesmen and 


Philosophers. [ 


Poets and .Historians and 


Contemporary 


B.C. 

700 


Warriors. 




Artists. Orators. 


Sovereigns. 


Aristomenes 




Tyrtseus 




Numa 


7th 
600 


Draco 




Archilochus 




Josiah 






Terpander 




Cyaxares 


Periander 


Chilo, Bias 


Alcoeus 




Nebuchad- 




Solon 


Pittacus 


Sappho 




nezzar 




Zaleucus 


Cleobulus 


iEsop, Fab. 




Serv. Tullius 




Pisistratus 


Thales 


Epimenides 




Craesus 


bth 


Hippias 


Anacharsis 


Stesichorus 




Cyrus 




Hipparchus 


Anaximander 


Minmermus 




Tarquin, Pr. 




Harmodius 


Xenophanes 


Thespis 




Cambyses 


500 


Aristogiton 


Anaximenes 


Susarion 






.Miltiades 


Pythagoras 


Anacreon 




Darius 




Leonidas 


Heraclitus 


Simonides 




Xerxes 




Aristides 


Melissus 


iEschylus 








r^ausamas 


Zeno 


Pindar 




Hiero 




Themistocles 


Empedocles 


Phidias, Art. 




ArtaxerxesL. 


oth 


Cimon 


Anaxagoras 


Cratinus 








Pericles 


Diagoras 


Eupolis 




Dionysius 




Nicias 


Me ton 


Polyffnotus^. 








Alcibiades 


Protagoras 


Parrhasius A. 








Critias 


Cebes 


Euripides 


Herodotus 




400 


Lvsander 


SOCRATES 


Sophocles 


Gorgias, Or. 




Thrasybulus 


Euclid, Meg. 


Aristophanes 


1 hucydides 






Conon 


Phsdo 


Zeuxis, Art. 


Lysias, Or. 






Pel'opidas 


Antisthenes 


Euphranor, 


Ctesias 






Epaminondas 


Aristippus 


Art. 


Xenophon 


Artaxerxes 




Agesilaus 


Hippocrates 


Timotheus 


'socrates, Or. 


Philip 


Uh 


Timoleon 


Democritus 


Lysippus A. 


Theopompus 


Alexander 




Parmenio 


Plato 


Apelles, Art. 


Hyperides,0. 


Darius Cod. 




Perdiccas 


Diogenes 




Demosthe- 






Phocion 


Aristotle 




nes, Or. 






Polysperchon 


Pyrrho 




iEschines, 




300 


Antigonus 


Euclid, Alex. 


Praxiteles A. 


Or. 




Demetrius 


Theophrastus 


Menander 




Lysimachus 




Antigonus G. 


Epicurus 


Theocritus 




Cassander 




Antigonus D. 


Zeno, Stoic 


Lycophron 


Timaeus 


Seleucus I. 


M 


Cleomenes 


Apollonius 


Aratus 


Manetho 


Ptolemy I. 




Aratus 


Arcesilaus 


Callimachus 




Pyrrhus 


200 




Archimedes 


Apollonius 




Ptolemy II. 
Antiochus,G. 




Eratosthenes 








Philopoemen 


Heraclides 


Bion 




Eumenes 


2d 


Lycortas 


Carneades 


Moschus 


Polybius 


Antiochus, E. 


100 




Hipparchus 


Nicander 


Apollodorus 
Diodorus Sic. 


Judas Mac. 








Mithridates 


1st 
C 


T — "" — " 


Potamo - 


Archias 


Dionysius H. 


Julius Caesar 

.... 








Augustus 


1st 
IOC 
2d 




Dioscorides 




Strabo, Geog. 
Plutarch, Bio 


Vespasian 





Epictetus 


Lucian, Dial 


Trajan 




Galen, Med. 




Arrian 


Adrian 



324 TABLES OF HISTORY. 

Remarks and Questions. 

Questions on Table I. 

How long did the kingdom of Israel continue ? The kingdom of Judah? 
What is said of Saul and his reign ? David ? Solomon ? &c. 
How many years did Saul reign ? David ? &c. 

What prophets flourished between H00 and 1000 B. C. ? Between 1000 
and 900 ? &c. 

Questions on Table II. 

What is said of Jeroboam and his reign ? Nadab ? &c. 
How long did the kingdom of Israel continue ? 

When and by whom were the people carried into captivity ? What 
afterwards took place ? 

Questions on Table III. 

When did the first Olympiad begin ? 

When did Solon form his code of laws ? 

When did the Persian war begin ? The Peloponnesian war ? 

When did Alexander invade Persia ? Battle of Ipsus ? Pydna ? 

When was Greece reduced to a Roman province ? 

What were some of the events of the 8th century B. C. ? The 7th? &c. 

Table IV. 

Table IV contains some of the most illustrious Greeks that flourished 
between 700 B. C, and A. D. 200. The 4th and 5th centuries B. C. com- 
prised the most flourishing period of Grecian literature. The only Greek 
authors who lived earlier than the time embraced in the Table, and whose 
works are still extant, were the poets Homer and Hesiod, who are sup- 
posed to have flourished about 9 or 10 centuries B. C. 

Most of the ancient sects of philosophy, the principal of which are men- 
tioned in pages 44 and 45, had their origin among the Greeks. 

The most illustrious Greek poets are Homer, the great epic poet; Pin- 
dar, a lyric poet ; JEschylus. Euripides, Sophocles, Aristophanes, and Me- 
nander, dramatic poets. Phidias and Praxiteles were famous statuaries; 
Polygnotus, Parrhasius, Zeuxis, and Jlpelles, eminent painters. 

The most distinguished historians are Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, 
Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. 

Questions on Table IV. 

What statesmen and warriors flourished in the 7th century B. C. ? In 
the 6th? &c. 
What philosophers flourished in the 6th century B.C.? In the 5th? 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



325 



B.C 

800 

8th 
700 
7th 
600 

6th 

500 



Table V. ROMAN HISTORY.— JYo. I. 
From the Foundation of Rome to the end of the Commonwealth. 



ROMULUS, founds Rome; institutes the senate; divides the 

people into tribes and curies ; patricians and plebeians. 
Numa Pompilius, a pacific king; regulates religious ceremonies 
Tullus Hostilius. Combat between the Horatii and Curiatii. 
Ancus Martius, builds the port of Ostia ; conquers the Latins. 
t akq.uin the Elder, constructs the cloaca, ; founds the capital. 



5th 



39 

85 

71 
56 
51 
49 
45 



Servius Tullius, establishes the census, made every 5th year. 

Tarq,ui.\. the Proud, disgusts the people by his tyranny : rape of 
Lucretia by his son Sextus. The Tarquins expelled ; the 
regal government abolished, 509, and the Commomcealthbegins 



400 y.~ 



Lartius, first Dictator. Contests between the Patricians and 
Plebeians ; the latter retire to Mons Sacer. Tribunes created. 
Dissensions respecting Agrarian Law begin. Coriolanus. 
Law Volero ; the privileges of the Plebeians increased. 
Cincinnatus Dictator ; defeats the Volsci and JEqui. 
Decemvirs appointed ; Laws of the Twelve Tables. 
The Decemvirs banished. — 445. Military Tribunes created. 
Intermarriages of the Patricians and Plebeians. 
Two Censors appointed. — 406. The troops receive regular pay 



4th 



300 



3d 



Veii taken by Camillus, the Dictator. 

The Gauls under Brennu* defeat the Romans, and burn Rome. 

Manlius Capitolinus thrown down the Tarpeian rock. 

War with the Samnites begins : lasts 53 years. 

The Campanians subdued. — 32. The Appian Way formed. 



200 



2d 



War with the Tarentines and Pyrrhus. — 266. Lower Italy conq 

First PUNIC WAR ; lasts till 241. — 355. Regulus defeated. 

Cisalpine Gaul reduced to a Roman province. 

Second PUNIC WAR; lasts till 201. 

Hannibal defeats the Romans on the Ticinus and the Trebia ; 

(•217) on the Thrasymenus ; and (216) at CANNJE. 
Romans (Marccllus) take Syracuse; and (210) conquer Sicily. 
The Romans (JYero and Livy) defeat Asdrubal at Metaurus. 
'! he Romans (Scipio Jlfricanus) defeat Hannibal at Zama. 



100 



The Romans defeat the Macedonians at Cynocephale. 

Bat'le of Pydna; Macedonia reduced to a Roman province. 

Third PUNIC WAR; ends (146), Carthage being destroyed 

Corinth taken, and all GPtEECE reduced to a Roman province. 

JVumantia taken after a loner siege. 

Tiberius Gracchus slain. — 21. Cuius Gracchus slain. 

War against Jugurtha ; — concluded (106) by Menus and Sylla. 

Marius defeats the Teutones at Aqua Sextice. 



1st 



89 
88 
73 
63 
60 
4 s ! 
45 
43 
42 
3 J 



Mithridatic war ; — lasts till 66. 
Civil tear between Marius and Sylla. — 82. Sylla's proscription. 
Servile icar. — 65. Syria conquered by Pompey. 
Catiline's Conspiracy suppressed by Cicero. 
First Triumvirate ; Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar. 
Civil war, Cjesar and Pompey; battle of Pharsalia. 
CiESAR perpetual Dictator; — 44. Csesar murdered. 
Second Triumvirate ; Octavius, Anthony, and Lepidus. 
Battle of Philippi ; Brutus and Cassius overthrown. 
Battle of Actium gained by Augustus, who puts an end to the 
Commonwealth, and becomes emperor. 



28 



326 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



Table VI. ROMAN HISTORY.— JVo. 2. 
From the end of the Commonwealth to the extinction of the Western Empire 



AD 



1st 



100 



2d 



200 



31 Augustus, 1st Emperor : golden period of Roman Literature. 
14 Tiberius, 2, characterized by cruelty and oppression. 
36i Caligula, 3, noted for profligacy and folly ; is murdered. 
41 Claudius, 4, a weak sovereign ; invades Britain. 
54 Nero, 5, a profligate tyrant; sets Rome on fire. Peter and Paid 
68 Galba, 6, slain and succeeded by [79] Otho, 7; by Vitellius,8 
70 V espasian, 9, a popular emperor. Jerusalem taken by Titus. 
79 Titus, 10. Herculaneum and Pompeii overwhelmed. 
1 Domitian, 11, a cruel tyrant, the last of the Twelve Ccesars, Ju- 
lius Cssar being the first. Britain conquered by Agricola. 

Nerva, 12, enfeebled by age ; adopts Trajan for his successor. 

Trajan, 13, a great sovereign. The empire in its greatest extent 



Zd 



300 



Ath 



400 



5th 



90 
98 

*' 
38 
til 
80 
93 
93 
93 
IT 

17 
18 
22 
35 

18 
38 
44 
51 
54 
61 
7.1 
75 
82 
84 



Adrian, 14, journeys through the empire; rebuilds Jerusalem. 
Antoninus Pius, 15, eminent for his public and private virtues. 
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 16, the virtuous stoic philosopher. 
Commodus, 17, profligate and cruel; is assassinated. 
Pertinax, IS, proclaimed by the Pretorian guards; murdered. 
Didius Julianus, 19, purchases the empire ; soon put to death. 
Septimius Severus, 20, defeats his competitors, Niger 8f A;binus. 



Caracalla and Geta, 21, two brothers ; murdered. 
Macrinus, 22, murdered at the instigation of Heliogabalus. 
Heliogabalus, 23, a monster of cruelty and vice; is murdered. 
Alex'der Severus, 24, an excellent prince ; defeats the Persians 
Maximin, 25, of gigantic stature. During his reign, Gordian I 

26, is proclaimed by the army ; unites Gordian II. 27. 
Maximus and Balbinus, 23 ; both slain. 
Gordian III., 29, defeats the Persians under Sapor. 
Philip, 30, the Arabian, succeeded by Decius, 31. 
Gallus,32, withGALLus Volusian. [54] jElmilian, 33. 
Valerian, 34, takes Sapor, king of Persia, prisoner. 
Gallienus, 35 ; succeeded by [68] Claudius, 36. 
Aurelian, 37, a great warrior, defeats Zenobia, the Goths, &c. 
Tacitus, 33. [76] Florian, 39. [77] Probus,40. [82] Carus, 41. 
Numerian and Carinus, 42. 
Diocletian, 43. The empire divided into four parts, under two 

emperors and two Ccesars. The last persecution of Christians. 



(i 

31 i 
61 
63 
64 
75 
92 

95| 
24 
55 

57 



Constantine, 44, the Great, 1st Christian emp. — Constantinople- 
Constantine II.,Constantius,& Constans, 45, three emperors- 
Julian, 46, the Apostate, reestablishes the pagan worship. 
Jovian, 47, restores the Christian religion 



VALENTiNiAN,I.,4S,emp. West 
Gratian,49. [83] Val. 11., 50 



64 Valens I , emp. of the East 
79Theodosius the Great. 



Theodosius, 51, the Great, last emperor of the West and East 



Western Empire. — Rome. 
Honorius, 52. Alaric. 



Valentinian III., 53. Attila. 

Maximus, 54. [55] Avitus,55. 

Majorian,56. [61] Severus, 

57. [67] Athenius, 58. 

72 Olybrius, 59. [73] Gluce- 

I rius,60. [74] J. Nepos,61. 

75 Augustulus Romulus, 62. 

Odoacer puts an end to the 

Western Empire, in 476. 



Eastern Empire.- Constantinople. 
95 Arcadius. 



8 Theodosius II. Theodosian 

Code. Invasion of the Huns 

under Attila. 
50 Marcian. 
57 Leo, the Great, first emperor 

crowned by the Patriarch. 
72 Zeno, makes Theodoric the 

Ostrogoth, his general. 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



327 



Table VII. Chronology of Roman Literature. 


B.C 

500 


Public Men. 


Poets. 


Historians. 


Philosophers, 
Orators, &c. 


Je \vs 

and 

Chiistians. 


Coriolanus 








Ezra 


5th 

400 

4th 


Cincinnatus 








Mabichi 


Camillus 
Manlius 








Jadua 


300 
2>d 










Kabricius 


Livius And. 






Sadoc 




Marcellus 


Nsavius 






Jesus Sirac 


200 












Fabius Max. 


Plautus 






Mattathias 


2d 


Scipio Afric. 


Ennius 






Judas Mac. 


100 


Cato, Censor 


Terence 






J Hyrcanus 


Marius 












Sylla 












'-ertorius 












Catiline 




Sisenna 




Shammai 




Crassus 


Roscius, 


J. CiESAR 






1st 


Pompey 


Drama 


Sallust 


Hortensius 


Hillel 




Lucullus 


Lucretius 


Hirtius Pan- 


CICERO 






Cato, Utica 


Catullus 


sa 








Csesar 


VIRGIL 


Cornelius 


Varro, 






Brutus 


Propertius 


Nepos 


Literature 






Cassius 


Tibullus 




Vitruvius, 







Antony 


Hora E 




Architecture 


John Baptist 


Emperors 












Ovid 


LIVY 


Columella 


Philo 






Phaedrus 


Valerius Ma. 




Jonathan 






Persius 


Pomp Mela. 




Onkelos 






Lucan 


Geog. 






1st 




Petronius 


Paterculus 


Seneca 


Peter 






Silius Itali- 


QuintusCur- 


Pliny, Sen. 


Paul 






cus 


tius 




Josephus 






Valerius 












Flaccus 


TACITUS 


Quinctilian. 


John 


100 




Statius 




Criticism 


Clemens Ro. 




Pliny, Jun. 




Ignatius 






Martial 


Suetonius 


Frontinus 


Papias 


2d 




Juvenal 


Florus 


M. Aurelius 


Justin Mar. 








AulusGellius 


. Antoninus 


Polycarp 


200 




Palladius 


Justin 




renaeus 










Tertullian 


2d 










Origen 


300 




Calpurnius 






Cyprian 






Vopiscus 


Arius 


4th 




Ausonius 


Lampridius 




Athanasius 


400 
5th 






Eutropius 




Ambrose 




Prudentius 


V. Sequester 




hrysostom 










Jerome 


500 

6^ 




Claudian 


Orosius 




Augustine 








Fulgentius 


600 
7iA 




Mar. Capella 


Cassiodorus 




Benedict 






Boethius 


Orregury 








Trebonian 




Isidore 



328 TABLES OF HISTORY. 



Remarks and Questions. 

The Tables V. and VI. exhibit the Chronology of the Roman History 
from the foundation of Rome to the end of the Western Empire — The 
figures on the left hand of the emperors, denote the commencement of their 
reign ; those on the right, the number of the emperor ; as Augustus was 1st, 
Tiberius the 2d, &c. 

Questions on Table V. 

Who was the first king of Rome ? Who the last ? When did Romulus 
begin to reign ? When was the regal government abolished ? What was 
done by Romulus ? Numa ? &c. 

When did the contests between the Patricians and Plebeians begin ? 
When was Rome burnt by the Gauls ? When did the first Punic war 
commence? The second ? The third ? What were Hannibal's victories? 

When did the Mithridatic war begin ? The civil war between Marius 
andSylla? Between Caesar and Pom pey ? The battle of Actium ? 

What events took place in the 4th century before the Christian era? 
In the 3d ? &c. 

Questions on Table VI. 

Who was the first emperor of Rome ? Who was the last emperor of the 
Western Empire ? 

When did Augustus begin to reign ? Trajan ? Diocletian ? Constan- 
tine the Great ? Who was the last of the Twelve Caesars ? Who was the 
last sole emperor of the West and East? 

When was the empire divided into the Western and Eastern ? 

When did the Western empire terminate? 

What is said of Augustus and his reign ? Tiberius ? &c. 

Table VII. 

The most flourishing period of Roman Literature comprised the century 
immediately preceding, and that immediately following, the Christian era. 
The Augustan Age, ox the reign of Augustus, embraced about 44 years, 
from 31 B. C. to A D. 14. 

Hie principal Roman or Latin Poets were Virgil, the great Roman epic 
poet, Terence, Lucretius, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, and Juvenal; the most 
eminent Historians, Caisar, Salhtst, Livy. and Tacitus. 

The Romans were less inclined to philosophical speculation than the 
Greeks ; and philosophy was but little cultivated among them till the time 
of Cicero, who was the most eminent of the Roman philosophers as well as 
orators, and was inclined to the Academic sect. Brutus, Cato (nf Utica), 
Seneca, and the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, were distinguished as 
Stoics. 

The term Fathers is usually applied to the Christian authors of the first 
7 centuries of the Christian era. The Apostolic Age ended near the close 
of the first century. The earliest of the Christian Fathers enumerated in 
the Table, is Clemens Romanus. Several of the most eminent are enume- 
rated in the succeeding centuries. 

Questions on Table VII. 

What public men flourished in the 5th century before the Christian era ? 
In the 4th ? &c. 

What poets flourished in the 2d century before Christ? In the first? 
What ones in the first century after Christ ? In the second ? &o. 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



329 



Table VIII. HISTORY OF FRANCE.— JYo. 1. 
From Pepin to Henry IV. 



A.D. 
700 

8th 

800 

9th 

900 
10th 



1000 

nth 

1100 
12th 

1200 

13*A 

1300 



Uth 

1400 
1500 
I6tt 



52 



66 



Kings 



Pepin 



Charlemagne 



14 Louis 1. Debonnai. 26 
40 Charles I. theBald-fii 
77 Louis II. Stammer. 2 
79 Louis 111. & 5 

84 Charles II. Fat 



Eudes 

Charles J II. Simple 



Robert 
Rodolph 
Louis IV. 
Lothaire 
Louis V. 

Hugh Capet 
Robert 



Henry I. 
Philip I. 



Louis VI. Fat 
Louis VII. 
Philip II. Aug. 



Louis VIII. Lion 
St Louis IX. 
Philip III. Hardy 
Philip IV. Fair 



Louis X. Hutin 
John I. 

Philip V. Long 
Charles IV. Fair 



28 Philip VI (Valois) 
50 John II. Good 



Charles V. 
Charles VI. 



Wise 



< harles VII. 
Louis IX. 
Charles VIII, 
Louis XII. 



Vict. 



Francis I. 

Henry II. 
Francis II. 
Charles IX. 

Henry III. 



Cariovingian Race. 
Son of Charles Mattel, supplants Childeric IH. 

succeeds to the throne, and founds the second 
or Carlovingian Race of French kings. 
The greatest sovereign of the age; founds, in 
800, the Empire of the West. 



The Empire divided into 3 kingdoms. 

Battle of Fontenay : invasion of the Normans. 

Makes grants to the nobles and bishops. 

Carloman, reign jointly. 

The imperial dignity transferred to Germany. 

Invasion of the Normans under RolJo. 



Defeats the Normans. 
Surnamed Outremer or Stranger. 
Hugh the Great, a powerful nobleman. 
Governed by Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the Gr 

Capctian Race. 
Obtains the crown; founds the Capetian Race 
A victim of papal tyranny. 



Prevalence ofdueLing. 

First Crusade : Peter the Hermit 



An able and useful sovereign. 

Second Crusade: St. Bernard; Abelard. 

A powerful sovereign : third Crusade. 



Crusade against the Albigenses. 
Engages in two Crusades ; dies at Tunis. 
Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. 
Quarrels with Boniface. Knights Templars. 



Dies an infant 4 days old. 

The Salic Lato recognised. 

Supports his sister Isabella of England. 

Branch of Valois. 
Defeated at Cressy, &c. ; gains Dauphiny. 
Defeated at Poitiers, and taken prisoner. 
Recovers the English possessions. 
Defeated by the English at Agincourt. 



The siege of Orleans raised by Joan of Arc. 
The Tiberius of France ; title Most Christian 
Makes an expedition against Naples 
Duke of Orleans ; League of Cambray. 



Duke of Angoultme ; an able sovereign ; a pa- 
tron of literature : at war with Charles V. 

Defeated at St. Quentin : recovers Calais. 

Husband of Mary Queen of Scots. 

Civil Wars commence : Guise, Cond6, and 
Coligni : St Bartholomew Massacre. 

League formed against the Protestants ; the 
king assassinated by James Clement. 



28* 



330 



TABLES OF HISTORT. 



Table IX. History of France. — No. 2. 
From Henry IV. to Louis Philip. 



t v. I) 

1500 



mil 



ItiOO 



17th 



1701 



18M 



800 



39 



to 



43 



15 



74 



19«A 



Kings. 



Henry IV. Great 



Louis Xlil. 



Louis XIV. 



Louis XV. 



Louis XVI. 



Bonaparte 

Louis XVIII. 
Charles X. 



3(r Louis Philip 



21 



House of Bourbon. 
Anable general, a great and popular sovereign; 
triumphs over the League in the battle of 
Ivry ; renounces Protestantism and becomes 
Catholic; issues the Edict of Nantes tolerat 
ing the Protestants ; aided by the Duke Sully, 
promotes the prosperity of the people. 



33 



72 



59 



18 



Mary de Medicis regent ; afterwards Cardinal 
Richelieu prime minister : Rochelle taken 
and the power of the Protestants crushed : 
Revolt of the Duke of Orleans. 

Possessed of talents and unbounded ambition ; 
his reign the longest and the most renowned 
for literature and the arts in French history 
also distinguished for military achievements; 
Colbert, Vauban, Turenne, and Condi : the 
canal of Languedoc formed : the Edict of 
Nantes revoked, and more than 500,000 Pro- 
testants driven into exile. 



Profligate and tyrannical • Mississippi Scheme 
of Law : Pacific administration of Cardinal 
Fleury : War of the Austrian Succession, end 
ed by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle: War 
with England, and loss of Canada. 

Begins his reign in a time of great difficulty 
and danger; Turgot, and afterwards Necker, 
ministers : the Americans assisted : the States- 
General convoked ; the National Assembly 
formed; and the Revolution begins, 1789. 

France declared a Republic, 1792: Louis and 
Queen Antoinette beheaded, 1793 : War with 
Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, &c : Robe- 
spierre; Reign of Terror : (Louis XVII dies 
1 795. ) Bonaparte ; victories at Marengo, &c 
made First Consul, 1799. 



10 it rowned emperor ; gains the victories of Aus- 
terlitz,Jena, &c, and exiends his dominion 
invades Russia, and gains the battle of Boro 
dino ; retreats ; defeated at Leipsic ; deposed 
(18 1 4) and sent to Elba ; escapes, and is over 
thrown at Waterloo (1815); sent to St. Helena. 

10 Restored. Constitutional Charter established : 
Louis displaced by Bonaparte, but again re 
stored : Invasion of Spain 

6 Weak and arbitrary ; Vilhle, Martignac, and 
Polignac successively ministers : the govern- 
ment adopt despotic measures, revolution en- 
sues, and Charles dethroned. 

Duke of Orleans, called to the throne by the 
Chamber of Deputies : the Constitutional 
Charter new-modelled: Perier, Soult,Broglie, 
Chiizot, &c, ministers. 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



331 



Table X. Chronology of Italian, French, Spanish, German, &c. 




Literature. 






A.D. 

1300 


Italian. 


^ i 


French. 1! 


Spanish and 
Portuguese. 


"•3 


German, Dutch 
&c. 


»"3 


*DANTE 


2J 








Uth 

1400 


*Petrarch 


74 W. Durand 33 


Juan Manuel 62 






Boccacio 
^Poggio 


75| TV. Occam 47 
59! C)Froissart 2 










John Huss 


15 


15th 


JEncas Sylv. 


641 


John Gerson 29 


*Villena 


34 


Guttenberg 


68 


*Pulci 


87 


*Chartier 58 


*Ju'n d'Mena56 


Th. a Kempisll 


1500 


Mirandola 


94 




*L dMendoza53 


Regiomont's 


76 


tRAPHAEL 


20 


§P.d'Comines 9 


Ximeaes 


17 


Reuchlin 


22 




tL DE VlNC 


r 20 


Budoeus 40 


*Garcilaso 


36 


fAlb. Durer 


28 




^>Machiavel28 


Bucer 51 


*Boscan 


43 


ZtinigJius 


31 




*Ariosto 


33 


Rabelais 53 


Loyola 


56 


ERASMUS 


36 




fCorreggio 


34 


J. C. ScaligerSci 


*S.d'Mirand 


a58 


Paracelsus 


41 


16th 


§Guiciardini 40 


R. Stephens 59 


Montemayor 


61 


Copernicus 


43 




§Bembo 


47 


Costalio 63 


*Camoens 


79 


LUTHER 


46 




fM. Angelo 


64 


CALVIN 64 


•[Morales 


86 


t Holbein 


54 




fTitian 


76 


Ramus 72 


f Vargas 


90 


Sleidan 


56 




Palladio 


80 


Montaigne 92 


*LuisdeLeon91 


Melancthon 


60 


1600 


*TASSO 


95 


H. Stephens 98 


*Ercilla 




Mercator 


94 


*Guarini 


13 


Beza 5 


Tycho Brahe 1 




Bellarmine 


21 


§Thuanus 17 


"Argensola 


13 


.Qrmmius 


19 




§ Father Paul 23 


*Malherbe 28 


CEKVNTES16 


Buxtorf 


21 




§Davila 


31 


Jansenius 38 


§ Mariana 


24 


Kepler 


31 




"Tassoni 


35 


Descartes 50 


§Herera 


25 


tRubens 


41 




GALILEO 


42 


Gassendi 55 


*Lope d'Veg 


a35 


tVandyck 


41 


17th 


tGuido 


4£ 


Pascal 62 


*Quevedo 


45 


Episcopius 


43 




§ Bentevoglio 44 


tPoussin 65 


f Velasquez 


60 


Grotius 


45 




Torricelli 


4? 


*Moliere 73 


*Calderon 


67 


t Rembrandt 


68 




L. Socinus 


62 


tClaudeLor.82 


■"Villecas 


69 


Spinoza 


77 




tBernini 


80 


*Corneille 84 


§Solis 


86 


Guericke 


86 




Borromeo 


94 


*La Fontaine 95 


fMurillo 


85 


PutTendorf 


94 


1700 


Malpighi 


94 


*Racine 99 
^Bossvet 4 


*Candarno 


9 


Huygens 
Leibnitz 


95 
16 


F. Socinus 


4 




Cassini 


12 


§ Bayle 6 






Vitringa 


22 




tMaratti 


13 


*Boileau 11 






Stabl 


34 




Gravina 


18 


*Fenelon 15 


§Ferreras 


35 


Le Clcrc 


36 




^Muratori 


50 


§Rollin 41 






Boerhaave 


38 


18th 


*MafFei 


55 


Le Sage 47 






Bernouilli 


48 




Goldoni 


72 


Montesquieu 55 






Wolff 


54 




*Metastasro 


82 


*V0LTAIRE78 






^Mosheim 


55 




Boscovitcb 


87 


Rousseau 78 






Sioedenborg 


72 




§Tiriboschi 


94 


D'Alembert 83 






Haller 


77 




Beccaria 


95 


Buffon 88 






LlNN.EUS 


78 


1800 


Galvani 


98 


Condorcet 94 






Lessing 


81 




Spallanzani 


99 


Lavoisier 94 


Ulloa 


95 


Euler 


83 


*Alfieri 


3 


Fourcroy 9 






Lavater 


1 




§Denina 


13 


La Grange 13 






*Klopstock 




19th 


Volta 


27 


De Stael 17 


§Llorente 


23 


Kant 


4 




Canova 


22 


La Place 27 






*Schiller 


5 




*Foscolo 


27 


Champollion 32 






*Wieland 


13 




*Monti 


28 


Cuvier 32 






*Goethe 


32 


* Poets 
_, 


: f Painters : $ Historians : those in Italics Divines- 





332 TABLES OF HISTORY. 



Remarks and Questions. 

N. B. The figures on the left-hand of the Kings and Emperors, in the dif- 
ferent Tables, denote the time when they began to reign ; the figures on the 
right-hand, the length of their reigns : as in Table I., Saul began to reign 
1195 B. C, and reigned 40 years : — Table II., Jeroboam began to reign 
1075 B. C, and reigned 21 years : — Table V., Augustus, the first Roman 
Emperor, began to reign 31 B. C. ; Tiberius, second Emperor, in 14 A. D. ; 
Table IX., Pepin began to reign A. D. 752, and reigned 16 years ; and so 
of the rest. 

Questions on Table VIII. 

Who were the first two kings of the Carlovingian Race ? 
"Who the first of the Capetian Race ? Of the Branch of Valois ? 
When did Charlemagne begin to reign ? Hugh Capet ? St. Louis IX. ? 
Philip VI.? Francis I.? 

What is said of Pepin and his reign ? Charlemagne ? &c. 

Questions on Table IX. 

When did Henry IV. begin to reign ? Louis XIV. ? Louis XVI. ? 
Bonaparte ? Louis XVIII ? Louis Philip ? 

What is said of Henry IV. and his reign ? Louis XIII. ? &c. 

Table X. 

In the revival of learning in modern times, Italy has the honor of hav- 
ing taken the lead. The 14th century was illustrated by the celebrated 
names of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccacio ; and in the 15th and 16th cen- 
turies, Italian genius in literature and the'fine arts, shone forth with great 
lustre under the patronage of the Houses of Medici and Este. 

Literature began to flourish in France, in the 16th century, under the 
patronage of Francis I. ; but its most brilliant period was during the long 
reign of Louis XIV., in the latter half of the 17th and the early part of the 
18th centuries. 

The 16th and 17th centuries embrace the most flourishing period of 
literature in Spain, and the most distinguished name in Spanish literature 
is Cervantes ; and in Portuguese literature, Camoens. 

Germany has given birth to a succession of eminent scholars and philos- 
ophers since the Reformation ; and has, for some time past, produced a 
greater number of learned authors than any other country. The Ger- 
mans claim the merit of many important inventions, as gunpowder, print- 
ing, watches, the air-pump, and the telescope. Copernicus, a native of 
Thorn, on the borders of Germany, was the restorer of the true system of 
the world. 

Holland has produced many learned men, among whom may be men- 
tioned Erasmus, the most celebrated scholar of his age, and Grotius, emi- 
nent for his talents and learning. The most eminent name among the 
Swedish men of science is Linnoeus, the naturalist. 

Questions on Table X. 

What distinguished men did Italy produce in the 14th century ? In the 
15th? &c. 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



333 



Table XL HISTORY OF ENGLAND— .JVb. 1. 
From the accession of Egbert to the death of Richard III. 



A.D 
800 



9th 
900 

10th 
1000 



nth 



noo 

12th 

1200 
13th 

1300 
14th 

1400 
I5tk 



Kings. 



Egbert 
Ethelwolf 
Ethelbald 
Ethelbert 
Ethelred I. 
Alfred 

Edward, Elder 

Athelstan 

Edmund I. 

Edred 

Edwy 

Edgar 

Edward, Martyr 

Ethelred II. 



Sweyn, Dane 
Edmund II. Ir side 

Canute, Great 
Harold I. 
Canute II. 

Edward, Confessor 
Harold II. 

William, ConqWor 

William II. 



Henry I. 
Stephen, Blois 

Henry II. 

Richard 1. 
John 



l(j Henry III. 
Edward I. 



77 



Edward 11 
Edward 111. 



Richard II. 
Henry IV. 



99 

13 nenry V. 

22 Henry VI. 



Edward IV. 
83 Edward V. 
83 Richard III. 



Saxon Family. 
First sole monarch of England : end of the 
Saxon Heptarchy. 

C The Danes begin their hostile attacks, 
< and continue more than two centuries 
( to scourge the country. 
An illustrious king ; has a prosperous reign. 



The Danes defeated. 

Defeats the Danes, Welsh, Scots, &c. 

Murdered by the robber Leolf. 

A slave of superstition, and dupe of Dunstan. 

Dunstan archbishop : Wolves exterminated. 
Assassinated by order of Elfrida. 
Massacre of the Danes at festival St. Brice. 
Conquers England, and is proclaimed king. 
Defeated by the Danes and murdered. 

Danish Kings. 
Completes the conquest of England. 
Surnamed Harrfoot. 
The power of the Danes terminates. 

Saxon Line restored. 
First k'g that touched for the King's Evil. 
Defeated and slain at Hastings. 

Norman Family. 
Conquers England; introduces the Feudal 
System, and Nor/nan language. 
Is shot while hunting. Abp. Hnselm. 



Usurps the throne of his brother Robert. 

Usurps, and has contests with Matilda. 
Family of Plantagenet. 

Conquers Ireland ; has long and severe con- 
tests with Bcchet : rebellion of his sons. 

Engages in a Crusade, and defeats Saladin. 

Foreign dominions lost: Magna Charta. 

Battles of Lewes and Evesham : Montfort ; 
First House of Commons. 

Subdues Wales ; battles of Falkirk, &c 



Defeated by the Scots at Bannockburn. 

A splendid reign: Chivalry in its zenith: 
Victories of Crcssy, Poictiers, &c. : Ed- 
ward the Black Prince. 

Deposed and murdered. Wickliffe ; Chaucer. 
Branch of Lancaster. 

Gains the throne instead of the rightful heir. 



Victory of Jigbicourt. Oldcastle burnt. 
39i Civil wars of the White and Red Roses; 
York and Lancaster. 

Branch of York 
22 Battles of Toxcton, Barnet, and Tewksbury. 
Murdered after a reign of 74 days. 
Defeated and slain at Bosicorth. 



334 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



Table XII. History of England. — No. 2. 
From Henry VII. to William IV. 



A.D 
1400 

1500 



Kings. 



S5 



Henry VII. 



im 



47 
53 

58 



1600 



nth 



35 

53 

60 

65 
39 



1700- 



IStk 



14 

27 

60 



Henry Vlll. 



Edward VI. 
Mary 

Elizabeth 



James I. 
Charles I. 

Cromwell 
Charles II. 

James II. 

William III. 
& Mary 



Anne 

George I. 
George II. 

George III. 



1800 



19i/t 



20 



30 



George IV. 



William IV. 



yrs 



24 



3d 



22 



24 



House of Tudor. 
Marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., unit- 
ing the Houses of York & Lancaster; commerce 
encouraged ; the Feudal System declines. 



A cruel tyrant; the victory of Floddenby Surrey; 
introduces the Reformation ; 2 queens divorced, 
two beheaded ; Wolsey disgraced ; Bp. Fisher, 
Sir T. More, Cromwell, and Surrey beheaded. 

Promotes the Reformation, aided by Cranmer. 

Restores Cath relig. ; marries Philip //.of Spain ; 
Jane Grey beheaded ; many Protestants burnt. 

Has an auspicious reign, assisted by Bacon, Bur- 
leigh, Walsingham, &c. ; agriculture, commerce, 
and literature flourish; the Church of England 
established ; Mary Queen of Scots, beheaded ; 
the Spanish Jirmada destroyed. 



25 



House of Stuart. 

Unites the crowns of England and Scotland; the 
Gunpowder Plot defeated ; the Bible trans- 
lated ; the Puritans settle at Plymouth, Mass. 

Despotic ; attempts to raise money without con- 
sent of Parliament, and is involved in civil war; 
Strafford, and Laud beheaded ; Charles defeated 
and beheaded (1649) ; the Commomoealthbeg'ms. 

Dissolves the Long Parliament, and becomes 
Protector. Navigation Act. Dutch war. 

Profligate ; his reign injurious to liberty and mo- 
rality ; Plague and Fire in London : Clarendon 
banished ; Russell a.ndAlg. Sydney executed. 

Attempts to establish the Catholic religion, and is 
obliged to abdicate ; hence the Revolution. 

Constitution confirmed : battles of Boyne and La 
Hogue: Peace of Ryswick : JYat. Debt begins. 



Marlborough and Eugene's victories of Blenheim, 

Ramillies. Malplaquet, &c. : literature flourishes. 

House of Brunswick or Hanover. 

Rebellion in favor of the Pretender suppressed : 
South Sea Scheme. Walpole minister. 

The Pretender overthrown at Culloden : War with 
France carried on in Europe, Asia, and America : 
Battle of Dcttinaren : Conquest of Canada. 

A long and eventful reign : Hostilities with, and 
loss of, the American Colonies :■ long war with 
France, terminated by the battle of Waterloo : 
Possessions in India greatly extended : Com- 
merce and the arts flourish ; but the National 



10 



Debt greatly increased. Regency 1811. 

A Bill of Pains and Penalties brought into Par- 
liament against the Queen (Caroline), but relin- 
quished : Battle of Navarino : Corporation and 
Test Acts repealed : Catholic Emancipation. 

The Duke of Wellington's ministry succeeded 
by that of Earl Grey : the Reform Bill passes. 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



335 





Table XIII. 


Chronology of English 


Literature. 




A.D. 


Statesmen and •« 


Poets. 


'a 
.8 


Divines. 




Miscellaneous 




1500 


Commanders. 

Wolsey 


30 




*w 




*s 




_JS 


Skelton 


29 


Tyndall 


36 








T. Cromwell 40 Wyatt 


41 


Ridley 


55 


Th. More 


35 




Somerset 


52 EarlofSurr) 


'47 


Latimer 


55 


Th. Eliot 


46 


16th 


Gardiner 


55 Heywood 


65 


Cranmer 


56 


Leland 


52 


S. Cabot 


57 Gascoigne 


77 


Card. Pole 


58 


K. Ascham 


68 




N Bacon 


79 Dunbar 


8<i 


Coverdale 


69 


Tusser 


80 




Leicester 


88 Marlowe 


93 


J Jewel 


71 


Hollingshed 


81 




Walsingham 


89 Southwell 


95 


Knox 


72 


Buchanan 


82 




Drake 


96 Peele 




J. Fox 


87 


P. Sidney 


86 


1600 


Burleigh 


98 Spenser 


98 


Hooker 










Essex 


1 


Beaumont 


15 


Andrew T es 


26 


Napier 


17 




Raleigh 


18 


SHAKSP'R 


16 


Chillingw'r 


th44 


bacon 


26 




Strafford 


41 


Fletcher 


25 


Usher 


50 


Camden 


28 




Pym 


43 


Herbert 


35 


Walton 


61 


Coke 


34 




Hampden 


43 


Ben Jonson 


3; 


Th. Fuller 


6.1 


Wotton 


39 




Falkland 


43 


Massinger 


39 


Taylor 


67 


Burton 


39 


nth 


Blake 


57 


G. Sandys 


43 


Barrow 


7; 


Selden 


54 




Cromwell 


58 


Quarles 


44 


J. Owen 


83 


Harvey 


57 




Marvell 


78 


Donne 


62 


Leighton 


8-1 


Hale 


76 




Monk 


70 


Cowley 


67 


Pearson 


Sf 


Harrington 


77 




Clarendon 


72 


MILTON 


74 


H. More 


87 


Hobbes 


79 




Shaftesbury 


83 


Roscommon 


84 


Bunyan 


88 


Th. Browne 


82 




Russell 


83 


Otway 


85 


Cudworth 


8S 


Duo-dale 


86 


1700 


Alg. Sidnejr 


S3 


Waller 


87 


Baxter 


91 Sydenham 


89 


Temple 




Butler 
Dryden 


8^ 
1 


Tillotson 
Howe 


94 


Boyle 


91 


Cavendish 


< 


5 


LOCKE 


4 




Godolphin 


12 


Farquhar 


7 


Bull 


9 


Addison 


19 




Somers 


16 


Parnell 


17 


M. Henry 


14 


Sir C Wren 23 




Marlborough 22 


Rowe 


18 


Burnet 


15 


NEWTON 


27 




Walpole 


4ti 


Prior 


21 


South 


16 


De Foe 


31 




Bolingbroke 


5J 


Congreve 


2- 


Clarke 


29 


Swift 


45 




Vernon 


57 


Gay 


32 


Watts 


48 


Fielding 


54 


l&th 


Wolfe 


59 


Pope 


44 


Doddridge 


51 


Richardson 


61 




Hoscawen 


61 


Thompson 


48 


Butler 


52 


Sterne 


68 




Anson 


G2 


Collins 


56 


Berkeley 


53 


Hume 


76 




Cumberland 


65 


A. Ramsay 


58 


Sherlock 


61 


Garrick 


79 




Lyttelton 


63 


Shenstone 


63 


Lardner 


68 


Blackstone 


80 




Chatham 


78. 


Churchill 


64 


Whitfield 


70 


Johnson 


84 




Cook 


79 


Young 


65 


Warburton 


79 


Ad. Smith 


90 




Rodney 


92 


Akenside 


70 


Lowth 


87 


Hunter 


93 




North 


92 


Gray 


71 


Wesley 


91 


Robertson 


93 




Mansfield 


93 


Goldsmith 


74 


Price 


91 


Gibbon 


94 


1800 


Burke 


97 


Burns 


96 


Campbell 


96 


Wm. Jones 


94 


Amherst 


98 


Cowper 




Blair 




Reid 


97 




Nelson 


5 


Beattie 


3 


Priestley 


4 


Sheridan 


6 




Pitt 


6 


H. K. White i 


Paley 


5 


Cavendish 


10 


19th 


Fox 


6 


Grahame 


11 


Horsley 


6 


Playfair 


19 


Romilly 


IS 


Keats 


22 


Porteus 


8 


E. D. Clarke 2 




Grattan 


20 


Shelley 


22 


Watson 


16 


Herschell 


22 




Castlereagh 


22 


Byron 


24 


Th Scott 


21 


Mitford 


27 




Erskine 


23 


Barbauld 


25 


Heber 


26 


Stewart 


28 




Canning 


27 


Crabbe 


32 


R. Hall 


31 


Davy 


29 




Huskisson 


30 


W. Scott 


32 


A. Clarke 


32 


Mackintosh 


32 



336 TABLES OF HISTORY. 



Remarks and Questions. 



Questions on Table XI. 

Who was the first of the Saxon Kings or Family ? Who were the Dan- 
ish kings ? The Norman ? The Plantagenet ? Who were of the Branch of 
Lancaster ? Of the Branch of York ? What is said of Egbert or his 
reign ? Alfred ? William the Conqueror ? &c. 

Questions on Table XII. 

What kings were of the House of Tudor? Stuart? Brunswick or 
Hanover ? 

When did Henry VII. begin to reign? Henry VIII. ? &c. 

How long did Henry VII. reign ? Henry VI 11. ? &c. 

What is said respecting Henry VII., or his reign ? Henry VIII. ? &c. 

Table XIII. ' 

Chaucer, the most celebrated of the early English poets, flourished in 
the latter part of the 14th century, in the reigns of Edward III. and Rich- 
ard II. ; but English classical literature may be considered as beginning 
in the latter half of the 16th century, during the reign of Elizabeth, with 
Hooker, a learned divine, Spenser and Shakspeare, eminent poets, and Ba- 
con, the philosopher, who also lived through the reign of James I. The 
reign of Queen Anne was particularly distinguished for men of genius, 
among whom were Xeicton, Jiddison, Pope, and Swift. 

Wolsey and Gardiner, who are placed in the left-hand column, were 
both ecclesiastics and bishops, though more distinguished as statesmen 
than as divines. Of those who are placed in the right-hand column, 
Sir Thomas More, the author of " Utopia." &c, and Lord Bacon, the phi- 
losopher, were both chancellors of England ; .Sir Matthew Hale was an 
eminent judge ; Sir Edward Coke, a, great lawyer : — Sir tliilip Sidney, the 
author of '• Arcadia," &c. ; Harrington, the author of " Oceana," &c. ; 
Sir Henry fVotton, John Selden, and Sir William Jones, all eminent schol- 
ars, were also distinguished in political life. 

Some who are classed in the Table among Statesmen and Commanders, 
are also distinguished as authors, as Raleigh, Clarendon, BoUngbroke, 
Lyttelton, Temple, Marvell, Algernon Sydney, Burke, &c. ; some classed 
amons; the Divines and Miscellaneous Authors, are also noted as Poets, 
as Addison, Watts, Swift, Heber, &c. ; and some of the Poets are also 
eminent as prose writers. 

Shakspeare, the great English dramatist, is eminently distinguished for 
genius ; Milton is regarded as the greatest epic poet of modern times ; 
Lord Bacon pointed out the true mode of philosophizing ; the works of 
JVeicton formed an era in natural philosophy and astronomy ; as did those 
of Locke in the philosophy of the human mind. 

There are many names of much merit in English literature, in addition 
to those contained in the Table. 

Questions on Table XIII. 

What eminent Statesmen and Commanders flourished in the 16th cen- 
tury? In the 17th? &c. 



T BLES OF HISTORY. 



337 



A. 

8:0 
9th 
900 
10th 
1000 
nth 
1 00 

12th 

1200 

mh 

1300 
Uth 



1400 



loth 



1500 



J6f// 



1800 



L7/A 



1700 



18th 



1800 



1M 



27j 

12 

S4| 
M 
36 



Table XIV. Eras in Modern I*i ory. 

New Empire of the West under Charlemagne formed. 
The Kingdom of England begins. The Saxon Heptarchy ends. 
The Normans under Roilo take possession of Normandy. 
Otho the Great, emperor of Germany, conquers Italy. 



William the Conqueror (battle of Hastings), conquers England. 
FIRST CRUSADE, to the H0I7 Land: Peter the Hermit. 



Second Crusade, excited by St. Bernard. 

Third Crusade under Richard I. of England and' Philip Augustus 
of France. 



Fourth Crusade, under Baldwin, who takes Constantinople. 
Magna Charta signed by king John of England. 
Genghis-Khan, emperor of the Moguls, overruns the Saracen 
End of the Caliphate of Bagdad. [empire. 

Last Crusade undei St. Louis IX 



Robert Bruce defeats Edward IS. of England at Bannockburn. 

Edward III. of England gains the battle of Cressy. 

Great Plague ravages Europe ; said to carry off one fourth of the 

inhabitants. 
Thnur Hek or Tamerlane commences his reign and conquests. 



l'U.Rivs take Constantinople: end of the Eastern Roman Empire 

The York and Lancaster War begins ; lasts 30 years. 

Arragon and Castile united, forming the kingdom of Spain. 

The Cape of Good Hope discovered by Bartholomew Diaz. 

AMERICA discovered by Columbus. 

Vasco de Gama reaches India by way of the Cave of Good Hope 

Charles V elected emperor of Germany : resigns in 1556. 

Mexico conquered by Cortez. 

The Globe first circumnavigated by Magellan's squadron : by 

Drake in !580. 
The Civil Wars in France begin, conducted by Conde and Guise 
The Republic of Holland begins by the union of Utrecht. 
The Calendar reformed by Pope Gregory. 



Union of the crowns of England and Scotland. 

First English settlement in America, at Jamestown, Virginia. 

First English establishment in H'ndostan. 

Peace of Westphalia or Munster ; end of the 30 years' war. 

Charles I. of England beheaded : the Commnnwcalth begins. 

Revolution in England ; abdication of Jarnes f L 



Peace of Utrecht between France and the Allies. 

Peace of Mx-la- Chapel le ; end of the war of the Austrian Succes 

A r eio Style introduced into England. 

Peace of Paris ; also of Hubertsburcr. 

The INDF.PENDENCE of the United States declared. 

The FRENCH REVOLUT ON ;— completed in 1792-3. 



Peace of Amiens, between England, France, Spain, and Holland. 

BONAPARTE emperor of France. 

End of the German Empire. 

War between the United States and England begins. 

The Battle of WATERLOO ; the empire of Bonaparte overthrown 

Peace of Adrianople between Russia and Turkey. 

JVcw Revolution in France; Charles X. dethroned. 

The Poles subdued, and Poland incorporated with Russia. 

The Reform Bill pa sses the British Parliament. 



338 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



A.D.I 


1st 
100 

2d 

200 

3d 

300 

4th 

400 
5th 

500 

6th 

600 
7*A 
700 
8th 
800 
9^ 
900 
10fA 
1000 

nth 

1100 
12iA 

1200 

13th 

1300 

14*A 

1400 

1500 



IQth 

lf>00 
(7*A 

1700 
18£/i 

1800 
19*A 



Fit'th Persecution by Septimius Severus : — 26 Sixth by Maximin, 
5O Seventh Persecution, by Decius. — 57 Eighth Pers. : — 72 Ninth 



2 Tenth (last and greatest) Persecution, by Diocletian. 
25 Christianity the established religion of the Roman Empire. 
25 Council of JYice, first general council : Arianism condemned. 



Table XV. Ecclesiastical Chronology. 



Crucifixion of JESUS CHRIST. 

First Persecution, by Nero.. — 95 Second Persecution by Domitian, 



Third Persecution by Trajan : — 13 Fourth by Adrian. 
The Canon of Scripture fixed about this time. 



JVestorianism condemned by the council of Ephesus. 
Eutychianism condemned by the council of Chalcedon. 



Invocation of the Virgin Mary and Saints begins. 
Augustine with 40 monks arrives in England. 



Bells begin to be used in churches. 
Organs begin to be used in churches. 



Great controversy respecting image worship. 

The Temporal Power of the Pope (Stephen) begins. 



1)3 



The College of Cardinals founded by Pope Pascal. 

A passion for relics, and great veneration paid to saints. 



A fearful expectation of the Day of Judgment prevails. 
Canonization first solemnly performed. 



The separation of the Eastern or Ureek Church. 

The Celibacy of the Clergy enjoined by Pope Gregory VII. 

The passion for Pilgrimage at its height. 



Scholastic Theology in vogue : Abeiard a teacher of it. 

Rise of the Mbigenscs and Waldenses. 

The power of granting Indulgences for money assumed. 



4i The Inquisition established by Pope Innocent 111. 
15 Auricular Confession established : the order of Dominicans. 
53' The Old Testament and the JVew divided into Chapters. 



69 

38| 
501 

l?l 
29 

35 

45 

63 

72 
11 

IS 
G2 

85 

20 
73 
84_ 

4| 
161 



Seat of the Popes removed to Avignon, where it remained 70 yrs 
Wickliffe propagates his doctrines, and translates the Bible. 
Violent disputes between the Rralists and Nominalists. 



Council of Constance, which condemned John Huss, begins. 
The 7 sacraments, decreed by the Council of Florence. 
The Vulo-ate Bible, the first large book, printed. 



The REFORMATION in Germany begun by Luther. 

Diet of Spire ; Protestants. — '30 Confession of Augsburg. 

Ths Society of Jesuits instituted by Ignatius Loyola. 

The Council of Trent be ins; lasts 18 years. 

The 39 Articles of the Church of England established. 

The St. Bartholomew Massacre of the Protestants in France. 



The English Translation of the Bible, now in use, finished. 
The Synod of Dort, which condemned Arminianism, begins. 
Act of Uniformity in England ; 2,000 ministers deprived. 
Revocation of the Edict ofjYantes; Frenc h Protestants persecuted 
Rise"ofthe Methodists ; - Wesley and Whitfield. 
The Society of the Jesuhs suppressed by Pope Clement XIV. 

Sunday Schools first es tablished in Yorkshire. England. 

The British and Foreign Bible Society instituted. 
The American Bible Society instituted. 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



339 



A.D. 

900 
10th 

1000 

nth 

1100 

12th 

1200 
13th 
1300 

Uth 



1400 



15th 



1500 



16th 



1600 



17th 



Table XVI. Chronology of Inventions. 

The Figures of Arithmetic brought into Europe by the Saracens 
Clocks with toothed wheels invented in France by Gerbert. 



Paper made of cotton rags in use. 
Surnames begin to be used by the nobility. 



The Pandects of Roman Laio discovered at Amalfi. 
The first regular Bank at Venice. 



Linen first made in England. 

Glass Mirrors and Magnifying Glasses invented by R. Bacon, 
to 1311 Spectacles invented by Bacon, Salvinus, Armatus, & Spina 
Talloio Candles begin to be used. 



Chim.neys and Glass Windows begin to be used in private houses 

The Mariner's Compass improved by Flavio Gioia. 

to 40 GUNPOWDER invented at Cologne by Swartz. 

Cannon used at the siege of Algeziras : Muskets in use in 1370. 

Clocks in use : first made in England in 1568. 

Playing Cards invented : first Paper Mill in Germany. 



Painting in oil-colors invented at Bruges by Van Eyck. 
Art of PRINTING invented by Coster, Guttenberg, &c. 
Post Offices established in France : in England in 1581. 
Printing introduced into England by William Caxton. 
Watches made at Nuremberg : in use in England in 1597. 
Maps and Charts brought into England by Barthol. Columbus. 



The Spinning Wheel invented at Brunswick by Jurgen. 

The true SOLAR. SYSTEM revived by Copernicus. 

Needles first made in England. 

First treatise on Decimal Arithmetic published at Bruges. 

Potatoes introduced into England from America. 

to 1620 The Telescope, by Porta, Jansen, Drebell, and Galileo. 



1700 



The Thermometer invented by Sanctorius, Drebell, and Galileo. 

Logarithms invented in Scotland by Napier. 

The Circulation of the Blood discovered by Harvey. 

The first Gazette or JVeiospaper at Venice : in England in 1665. 

Coffee first brought into England : Tea in 1666. 

The Barometer invented by Torricelli and Pascal. 

The Air-pump invented at Magdeburg by Guericke. 

The Steam Engine invented : improved by Watt in 1768. 

Saturn's Ring discovered by Huygens. 

The JYewtonian Philosophy published in England. 



IQth 



21 
25 

52 

09 
SI 

94 
08 

98 



1800 



\9th 



Inoculation introduced into England from Turkey. 

Stereotype Printing invented by Ged: introduced by Didot, 1799. 

The identity of Lightning and Electricity ascertained by Franklin 

The Spinning Jenny invented by Arkw right. 

The planet Uranus or Herschel discovered by Herschel. 

The Cotton- Gin invented by Whitney. 

VACCINATION discovered by Dr. Jenner. 

Galvanism discovered by Galvani. 

Lithography invented at Munich by Sennefelder. 



The first STEAMBOAT on the Hudson. 

The streets of London lighted with Gas. 

The Safety-lamp invented by Sir Humphrey Davy. 

Engraving of Steel Plates invented by Perkins. 

Carriages propelled by Steam in England. 



340 TABLES OF HISTORY. 



Table XIV 

The 14th Table exhibits some of the most important eras in Modern 
History ; but the chronology of the rise and fall of states and empires, from 
the earliest ages of history to the present time, may be best learnt by the 
Chart of History. 

Questions. 

When was the New Empire of the West formed ? 
When did William the Conqueror conquer England? 
When was the first Crusade ? The last ? When did Genghis Khan 
overrun the Saracen Empire ? 

W T hen did the Caliphate of Bagdad end? 

When did Timur Hek begin his conquests? 

When did the Turks take Constantinople ? 

When was America discovered ? 

When was Charles V. elected emperor of Germany? 

When was the Revolution in England ? 

When was the Independence of the United States declared? 

When did the French Revolution take place ? 

When was Bonaparte emperor of France ? 

W T hen was the battle of Waterloo ? 

What events are mentioned in the 9th century ? The 10th ? &c. 

Questions on Table XV. 

When was the crucifixion ? The first persecution ? The tenth ? 

When was the period of Christianity's becoming the religion of the Ro- 
man empire, and of the meeting of the Council of Nice? 

When did the temporal power of the Pope begin ? 

When was the passion for pilgrimages at its height? 

When was the Inquisition established? 

When was the Bible divided into chapters ? 

What is the date of Wickliffe's labors ? The Council of Constance ? 
The Reformation ? The Society of Jesuits ? The Council of Trent ? 
The Bartholomew massacre? The Synod of Dort? The rise of the 
Methodists ? Sunday schools ? The British and Foreign Bible Society ? 

Table XVI 

The 16th Table exhibits a chronological view of the most important 
modern inventions and improvements, which are connected with the pro- 
gress of the arts and sciences, and the well-being of society. 

Antiquaries are not agreed with respect to whom the world is indebted 
for that most important invention, the Art of Printing. The honor is 
claimed by three cities, Haarlem. Strasburg, and Mentz; and the persons 
whose names are chiefly associated with inventing and perfecting the art, 
*re haurens Coster, Guttcnberg, Geinsfleisch, Faust, and Sck-oeffer. The 
date of the invention is commonly stated at 1440 ; but the first step, by the 
use of wood™, ti/pes, was made about 1435 ; the second, by cut metal types, 
in or about 1444 • the third, by cast metal types, in 1458. 
_ When was gunpowder invented? Printing? The telescope? Loga- 
rithms ? The steam engine ? Stereotype printing ? Vaccination ? The 
steamboat ? 

What inventions or improvements took place in the 10th century? 
The 11th ? &c. 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



341 



A.D 

1600 



Table XVII. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Hth 



1700 



\8th 



1800 



mh 



Virginia settled by the English. 

New York settled by the Dutch. 

Massachusetts settled by English Puritans. 

JVew Hampshire settled by English Puritans. 

JYew Jersey settled by the Dutch. 

Delaware settled by Swedes and Fins. 

Maine settled by the English. 

Maryland settled by Irish Catholics. 

Connecticut settled by English Puritans. 

Rhode Island settled by the English under Roger Williams. 

Confederation of the Colonies of New England for mutual defence. 

North Carolina settled by the English. 

A r cw York surrendered by the Dutch to the English. 

The colonies of Connecticut and J\'ew Haven united. 

South Carolina settled by the English. 

Pennsylvania settled by English Quakers under William Penn 

Neio England, Neio York, and JVew Jersey under the oppressive 

government of Jindros. 
The colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts- Bay united. 



76 
88 
89 ! 
91 
92 
94 

90 
97 

96 

T 

2 
3 
7 
9 

11: 
12 
16 
17 

18 
19 
20 
21 

25 

28 
29 
32 



East and (Vest Jtrsea united and styled New Jersey. 
Georgia settled by the English under General Oglethorpe. 
Peace of Paris : — the French war ends : — Canada, &c. confirmed 

to England. 
Declaration of the INDEPENDENCE of the United States. 
The Constitution of the United, States adopted. 
GEORGE WASHINGTON first President of the United States 
The State of Vermont admitted into the Union. 
The State of Kentucky admitted into the Union. 
Insurrection in Pennsylvania on account of duties on distilled 

spirits. 
The State of Tennessee admitted into the Union. 
JOHN ADAMS second President of the United States. 
Hostilities with France. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON, third President of the United States. 
The State of Ohio admitted into the Union. 
Louisiana purchased of France by the United States. 
General Embargo laid in all the ports of the U. S. ; repealed 1809 
JAMES MADISON, fourth President of the United States. 
The State of Louisiana admitted into the Union. 
Declaration of War against England, June 18 : ends Dec. 24, '14. 
The State of Indiana admitted into the Union. 
JAMES MONROE, fifth President of the United States. 
The State of .Mississippi admitted into the Union. 
1 he State of Illinois admitted into the Union. 
The State of Alabama admitted into the Union. 
The State of Maine admitted into the Union. 
The State of Missouri admitted into the Union. 
Florida ceded to the United States by Spain. 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, sixth President of the United States 
The Tariff" Law enacted, imposing protecting duties on imports. 
ANDREW JACKSON, seventh President of the United States 
The Legislature of South Carolina passes an act to nullify the 
laws of the United States. 



^9* 



342 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



765 



66 
67 

68 
70 

73 

74 
it 

75 



7G 



a 

77 



78 



81 



Table XVIII. Events of the Revolutionary War. 

The Stamp J3ct passed by the British Parliament. 

Resolutions against the Stamp Act passed by the Assemblies of 
Virginia and Massachusetts. 

First Colonial Congress, from nine of the Colonies, meets at New 
York. 

The Stamp Act repealed by the British Parliament. 

Act of Parliament imposing duties on tea, paper, glass, and pain- 
ters' colors. 

British troops arrive at Boston. 

Affray between the British troops and the inhabitants of Boston,— ■ 
three of the latter killed. 

British Tea thrown into the harbor at Boston. 

The Boston-Port Bill, shutting up the harbor, passed. 

V irst Continental Cong, ess meets at Philadelphia. 

The Revolutionary War begins by a skirmish at Lexington. 

Ticonderoga and Crown-Point taken by the Americans. 

Battle. | Victor. Loss. | Defeated. Loss. 

1. Bunker-Hill, | Howe, 1,054 | Prescott, . . 453 

Congress meets ; George Washington chosen commander-in-chief. 

Boston evacuated by the British, and Canada by the Americans. 

Declaration of Independence ; — July 4. 
Flatbush or 



83 



"" Brooklyn, $ 
3. White Plains, 



How* 



400 



Putnam & Sullivan,2,000 
Washington, 3 or 400 



Howe, 3 or 400 

Fort Washington on the Hudson taken by the British 
Gen. Washington retreats through N. Jersey over the Delaware 



4. Trenton, 

5. Princeton, 

6. Bennington, 

7. Brandy wine, 
S. Germantown, 
9. Stillwater, 



Washington, 

Washington, 

Stark, 

Howe, . 

Howe, 

Gates, 



9 
100 
100 
500 
600 
350 



Rahl, . . 1,000 
Mawhood, . . 400 
Baum & Breyman, 600 
Washington, . 1,000 
Washington, 1,200 

Burgoyne, . 600 



Burgoyne surrenders to Gen. Gates, at Saratoga, with 5,752 men. 
Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the Thir- 
teen United States. 
Treaty of Alliance between the United States and France. 



10. Monmouth 

11. Rhode Island, 

12. Briar-Creek, 
Charleston, S 

13. Camden, 



Washington. 230 

Sullivan, . 211 
Prevost, 16 

C, surrendered to Sir Henry Clinton. 
Cornwallis, 325 Gates, 



Clinton, 


400 


Pigott, . 


. 260 


Ash. 


300 



730 



Treachery of Arnold in attempting to deliver up West-Point. 



14. Cow-pens, 
15.Guilford,N.C. 
16. Eut. Springs, 



Mori 



gan, _ 
Cornwallis, 



Tarleton, 

Greene, 

Stewart, 



800 

400 

1,100 



72 
523 
Greene, 555 

New London taken and burnt by Arnold. 
Cornwallis surrenders to Washington at Yorktown, with 

men, the principal closing scene of the Revolutionary War. 
Treaty of Peace with England ; the Independence of the United 
States acknowledged. 



7,073 



* The numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. to 16, are prefixed to the places where the principal bat- 
tles were fought, with the names of the victorious commanders, with their loss in killed 
and wounded placed on the left of the defeated commanders. The two events most im- 
portant to the American cause were the surrenders at Saratoga and Yorktown. 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



343 



A.D 

1600 



nth 



1700 



Table XIX. Chronology of Improvements and Events 

INDICATING THE PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. 



ISth 



16 Tobacco first cultivated by the English in Virginia. 

38 Harvard College founded at Cambridge, Mass. 

39 First Printing Press in the English American Colonies, at Cam' 

bridge, Mass. 
48 Cambridge Platform adopted. 

o'l Eliot's Indian Testament (Bible in 1664) printed at Cambridge. 
33 William and Mary College founded at Williamsburg, Va. 
95 Cultivation of Rice introduced into South Carolina. 
Population of the Colonies about 260,000. 



1800 



i 

4 

10 
19 

20 
25 
SS 
38 
41* 
S4 
59 
74 
75 
75 
30 
31 
32 
34 
>\ 
)!. 
90 
91 1 

91 

94 

96 

98 



Vale College, the third in the colonies, founded. 

Boston News Letter, the first American Newspaper, published. 

First Post Office in America, at New York. 

First Philadelphia Newspaper published. 

Tea begins to be used in New England. 

First New York Newspaper published 

First lodge of Freemasons in America, at Boston. 

College of JS'ew Jersey founded, — Princeton. ■ 

White Population of the colonies 1,046,000. 

First Medical School in the colonies, at Philadelphia. 

American Philosophical Society instituted at Philadelphia. 

The streets of Boston first lighted with lamps. 

Population of the colonies about 2,600,000. 

The number of Newspapers in the colonies 37. 

American Academy of Arts and Sciences instituted at Boston. 

Bank of North America, first American bank, instituted. 

First American 74 gun ship built at Portsmouth, N. H. 

Bishop Seabury, first bishop in the United States, consecrated. 

First American voyage to China from New York. 

Bishop Carroll, first Catholic Bishop in the U. S., consecrated. 

First Census of the U. S. taken : — Population 3,929,323. 

First Folio and Quarto Bibles printed, in the United States, at 

Worcester, Mass. 
United States Mint established at Philadelphia. 
The Cotton- Gin invented by E. Whitney; cotton soon becomes 

an important article of produce. 
First Turnpike corporation in Massachusetts established. 
Transylvania University, first west of the Alleghanies, instituted 



\9th 



About 200 Newspapers published in the United states. 

Merino Sheep first imported. 

Middlesex Canal, the first large canal, completed. 

Steam-boats first used on the Hudson. 

Andover Theological Seminary, first of the kind in the United 

States opened. 
First Steamboat on the Mississippi and Ohio. 
The American Education Society instituted. 
The American Bible Society instituted. 
The Erie Canal completed. 
r he American Temperance Society instituted. 
Fifth Census of the United States : Population 12,866,020. 
Number of Neicspapers published in the U. States about 1,000. 
The Ohio Canal completed. 



344 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 



Table XX. Distinguished Americans. 



A.D 

1600 



nth 



1700 



I8tk 



1800 



IQth 



Statesmen and -« 
Civilians. ^ 



John Carver 21 
John Smith 31 
Lcl. Baltimore 32 
J. Winthrop 49 
Ed. Winslow 55 
W. Bradford 57 
Theop. Eaton 57 
Jn. Endicott 65 
C. Calvert 76 
Philip, King, 76 
SirW.BerkTy77 
W.Coddingt'n78 
Sir W. Phips 95 



SirEd. Androsl4 
Wm. Penn 18 
Wm. Burnet 29 
Wm. Shirley "71 
J. Quincy 75 
Pey.Randolph75 
P. Livingston 78 
R. Stockton 81 
James Otis 83 
W.Livingston90 
Jas. Bowdoin 90 
Hen. Laurens 92 
John Hancock 93 
Rog. Sherman 93 
Arthur Lee 94 
R. H. Lee 94 
PatrickHenry9l 
Washington 9i> 
J. Rutledge 



Warriors and -« 
Commanders. -J-> 



Sam. Adams 
A. Hamilton 
Geo. Wythe 
O. Ellsworth 
Fisher Ames 
The. Parsons 1 
Sam. Dexter 
J. A. Bayard 
Caleb Strong 20 
Eli. Boudinot 21 
W. Pinkney 2^ 
Geo. Cabot 23 
C.C.Pinckney25 
John Adams 20 
T. Jefferson 26 
Rufus King 2 
De W.Clinton 28 
John Jay 29 

T.Pickering 29 
Jas. Monroe 31 
Ch. Carroll 32 



Mil's Standish 56 



John Mason 73 



Jos. Winslow 80 

Benj. Church 18 
SirWPep'erell59 
Jos. Warren 75 
R.Montg'mr'y75 
John Thomas 7b' 
Hugh Mercer 77 
Dav. Wooster 77 
Count Pulaski 79 
Charles Lee 82 
Lord Stirling 83 
Nat'l Greene 86 
Ethan Allen 89 
Israel Putnam 90 
Bar'n Steuben 94 
John Sullivan 95 
Fran. Marion 95 
Anth. Wayne 96 
Th. Mifflin 
Art. Ward 



Divines. 



J. Robinson 
F. Higginson 
John Harvard 
Tho. Hooker 
Tho. Shepard 
John Cotton 
John Norton 
Rich. Mather 
J. Davenport 
Ch.Chauncy 
Urian Oakes 
Rog. Williams 
John Eliot 



Miscellaneous. 



25 

30 

38 

47 

49 

52 

63 A. Hutchinson 43 

69 W. Brewster 44 

70L/V. Ward 53 

72E. Johnson 72 

81 N. Morton 85 

8 iS. Gorton 87 

90 D. Gookin 87 



Phil. Schuyler 4 
Wm Moultrie 5 
Henry Knox 6 
Horatio Gates 6 
Edw. Preble 7 
Wm. Eaton 7 
Benj. Lincoln 10 
James Clinton 12 
Z. M. Pike 13 
J. Lawrence 13 
Win. Heath 14 
Art. St. Clair 18 
O. H. Perry 20 
S. Decatur 20 
John Stark 22 
Th Truxton 22 
J. Wilkinson 25 
Macdonough 25 
Th Pinckney 28 
Jacob Brown 28 
Th. Sumter 32 



Sam. Willard 
Incr. Mather 
Cott'n Mather 
J Dick'ms >n 
Benj. Colman 
D. Biainerd 
J. Edwards 
Tho Prince 
8am'l L ! avies 
G Tennent 
Jon. May hew 
Tho. Clap 
Sam Johnson 
Ch. Chauncy 
Mather Byles 
J. Bellamy 
Witherspoon 
Ezra Stiles 
John Clarke 

Jon. Edwards 
J. Ewing 
S. Hopkins 
J. B. Linn 
Buckminster 
Abp Carroll 
[Muhlenberg 
Bp Dehon 
T. Dwiglit 
S. S. Smith 
J. Appleton 
Fos. Lathrop 
B. Trumbull 
S. Worcester 
Hecke welder 
Jed. Morse 
Edw. Payson 
J. M. Mason 
Bp. Hobart 
J. P. Wilson 
J. H. Rice 



7 Wm. Hubbard 4 
23 R. Beverly 17 
28 7". Cullender 48 
47 Th. Godfrey 49 
47 Wm. Stith 50 
47 James Logan 51 
58 Z. Boylston 66 
58 J. Mitchell 72 
61 J. Clayton 73 
64 Cadw. Golden 76 
66 J. Bartram 77 
67.T Hutchinson 80 
Jona Carver 80 
nt. Benezet 84 
J. Ledyard 89 
3. Franklin 90 
' Hopkinson 91 
D. Ritt nhouse96 
Jer. Belknap 98 



R. Minot 2 
R. Morris 6 

J. Dickinson 8 
Ch. B. Brown 9 
Joel Barlow 12 
Benj. Rush 13 
Co'ntR'mfordl4 
Rob. Fulton 15 
J. S. Copley 15 
Jos. Dennie 12 
Dav. Ramsay 15 
B. S. Barton 15 
CasparWistar 18 
Benj. West 20 
E. Whitney 25 
L. Murray 
(5. Stewart 
S. Elliott 
Isai. Thomas 
J. Trumbull 



S.L Mitchell 31 



TABLES OF HISTORY. 345 

Remarks and Questions. 

Table XVII. 

The 17th Table contains a chronological view of the principal events in 
the history of this country during its colonial dependence on Great Britain, 
and also since the Declaration of Independence in 1776. 

Questions. 

Which were some of the first settled colonies ? 

When was Virginia settled ? New York ? &c. 

When was the Peace of Paris, and the end of the French war ? 

When the Declaration of Independence ? When peace with England ? 
When was the Constitution adopted? Who was the first President of the 
United States ? The 2d ? &c. 

When did Washington become President ? Adams ? &c. 



Table XVIII. 

The 18th Table exhibits a chronological view of the principal battles and 
other most important events, during the contest between this country and 
Great Britain, from the passing of the Stamp Act to the establishment of 
peace with England, when the independence of the United States was ac- 
knowledged. 

Questions. 

When was the Stamp Act passed ? What other events took place be- 
fore the first Continental Congress met ? What warlike events took place 
before the Declaration of Independence ? What battles were fought in 
1776? In 1777? In 1778 ? In 1780? In 1781 ? When was the surren- 
der at Saratoga ? At Yorktown ? When peace with England ? 



Table XIX. 

This Table exhibits a chronological view of improvements and events 
indicating the progress of society in this country, both before and since the 
Declaration of Independence ? 

What colleges were first founded ? 

When was printing introduced ? When and where the first newspaper 
published ? 

When and where the first medical school ? &c. 



Table XX. 

The 20th Table contains the names of many of the most distinguished 
Americans. The names of no persons who are still living are here enu- 
merated. Most of those belonging to the 17th century, were born in Eng- 
land. Count Rumford, a distinguished natural philosopher, Copley and 



346 TABLES OF HISTORY. 

West, eminent painters, and Lindley Murray, a learned grammarian, 
though natives of this country, passed a great part of their lives, and pro- 
duced most of their works, in Europe. 

Some who are classed as warriors, were also known as statesmen, and 
some, classed as statesmen, were likewise distinguished as military com- 
manders; as Washington, who was " first in war and first in peace." 

Dr. Franklin, the most celebrated philosopher that America has pro- 
duced, and distinguished particularly for his discoveries in electricity, was 
also an eminent statesman. Alexander Hamilton was the first Secretary 
of the Treasury of the United States, and the founder of the American sys- 
tem of finance. 

Ward, Hubbard, Stith, Callender, and Belknap, classed in the 4th column, 
were clergymen ; yet they are most known by works which are not theo- 
logical, as also are Prince, Muhlenberg, Trumbull, and Morse. 

Eliot and Brainerd were distinguished as missionaries among the In- 
dians ; and the first Edwards is esteemed the greatest metaphysical divine 
that America has produced. 

Of the persons enumerated in the fourth column, some were historians, 
physicians, men of science, poets, artists, &c. 

Within the last twenty or thirty years, much progress has been made in 
this country with respect to education and encouragement to learning ; and 
there has also been a vast increase in the amount of original publications : 
America, however, can yet boast of but few illustrious names in literature^ 
or the arts and sciences. 



Questions. 

Who are some of the statesmen and civilians that flourished in the 17th 
century? Inthel8th? In the 1 9th? 

Who are some of the warriors that flourished in the 17th century ? &c 



QUESTIONS. 



N. B. The numbers prefized to the following Questions correspond to the paragraph* 
in the Volume ; so that the student will readily see where to seek for every answer. R 
will be perceived that, in many instances, the answers to three or four questions are to be 
found in one paragraph. 



USES OF HISTORY. 

1. What is history? What is said of the study of it ? 

2. What is said of history, compared with novels and romances ? 

3. On what is the general taste for history founded ? What view 
does it afford of human nature ? 

4. What is a higher use of history ? What has it been styled ? 
What does it add to oar own experience ? 

5. With what does it make us acquainted ? From what does it 
gerve to free the mind ? 

6. To what class of persons is history indispensable I Of what do 
we gain a knowledge by history ? 

7. What further does history show and teach us? 

8. What influence has it on the character? How does it make vir- 
tue appear, — and vice ? What does the reader of history learn to con- 
nect with true glory ? 

9. What does history teach us has been often done under the direc- 
tion of Providence ? 

10. Why does a knowledge of history tend to render us contented 
with our condition in life ? 

THE SOURCES OF HISTORY. 

1. What is the first source of history ? Who derived his history 
chiefly from this source ? 

2. What is the second source ? What instances are mentioned ? 

3. What is the third source ? 4. The fourth ? 5. The fifth ? 6. The 
sixth ? To what century do the most ancient coins that have been 
found belong ? 

7. What is the seventh source of history ? What is (he most cele- 
brated collection of marbles of this kind? 

8. What is the most important of these inscriptions ? What is said 
of it ? 

DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. 

1. How is history divided with respect to time? 

2. What is Ancient History? Modern History? 

3. What other eras do some historians adopt for the dividing points ? 

4. What is a third division of history? What does this period 
comprise ? 

5. What is said further of the Middle Ages? 

6. By what is Ancient History distinguished? 

7. By what are the Middle Ages characterized? 

8. By what is Modern History distinguished ? 

9. How is history divided with regard to subject? 



348 DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. 

10. What is Sacred History ? Profane History ? Ecclesiastical 
History ? Civil History ? 

11. How far back does Sacred History go, and what was the length 
of time from the creation to the Christian era ? 

12. Who is the earliest profane historian ? When did he write, and 
of what nations? 

13. What is said of the history of the world before the time when 
the history of Herodotus begins ? 

14. What is said of our knowledge of the early history of the world? 
What is the only source of this information ? 

15. What are some of the most remarkable events respecting the 
early history of the world recorded in the Bible? 

16. What are the most important portions of profane history ? 

17. What is said of the history of the Middle or Dark Ages ? 

18. What portions of history are the best known ? 



EGYPT. 

1. Why does Egypt hold a conspicuous place in history ? What 
nation derived its information chiefly from it ? 

2. What is said of the ancient history of Kgypt ? 

3. What are some of the works of ancient grandeur ? 

4. What is said of the glory of Thebes ? 

5. What city supplanted Thebes ? What is said of the description 
given of Thebes by Strabo and Diodorus? 

6. How was the place of alphabetic writing supplied? 

7. What nations did the Egyptians resemble ? What was their 
form of government ? 

8. To what was every person subjected after his death ? 

9. Who founded the Egyptian monarchy? What race of kings 
followed ? 

10. Were the Egyptians a warlike nation ? What king of Egypt 
was a great conqueror ? What is said of him ? 

11. Who is the next distinguished sovereign ? What is said of him? 

12. Who conquered Egypt, 525 B. C. ? In what manner? 

13. By whom was it wrested from Persia ? What was its situation 
after the death of Alexander ? 



THE PHCENICIANS. 

1. What is said of the Phoenicians and their history ? 

2. What are they styled in the Scriptures, and what were their 
chief cities ? 

3. Of what were they the reputed inventors ? 

4. To what places did they send colonies ? By whom did Tyre 
suffer memorable sieges ? 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

1. What is said of Assyria ? Who founded Babylon ? What is said 
of their history ? 

2. What is commonby supposed respecting Assyria and Babylon ? 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 349 

What is the opinion of Dr. Gillies ? What is said of Ninus and 
Semiramis ? 

3. How is Ninus represented ? How ts Semiramis described ? 

4. What is said of the history of the empire from the time of Ninyar 
to Sardanapalus ? 

5. What is said of Sardanapalus ? Who excited a rebellion again* 
him? 

6. What took place with regard to the empire ? 

7. Who were the four successors of Pul ? 

8. Who put an end to the Assyrian monarchy ? 

9. By whom was Nabopolassar or Nebuchadnezzar succeeded ? 
10. What took place during the reign of Belshazzar ? 



PERSIA. 

1. What is said of Persia? What is the state of its history prior to 
the reign of Cyrus ? What was it originally called ? Who was the 
founder of the great Persian empire ? What countries did it comprise ? 

2. To whom are we indebted for the history of Persia ? What is 
said of the Persian historians ? Which are entitled to most credit ? 

3. What is said of Cyrus ? What did he perform ? 

4. What ancients have written accounts of Cyrus ? W T ho have fol- 
lowed Xenophon ? What was Xenophon's supposed design ? 

5. What is said of Cambyses ? Of Smerdis ? Darius ? 

6. Who succeeded Darius ? What is said of him ? To whom did 
he leave the empire ? 

7. Who were the other two principal sovereigns ? 



GREECE. 
Section I. 

1. What was the extent of Greece ? How was it bounded ? What 
is its general aspect ? 

2. What is said of this country ? For what were the inhabitants 
renowned ? 

3. What did Greece comprise? How did these states differ? How 
were they united ? 

4. What was the form of government in the early ages ? What 
form afterwards prevailed ? 

5. What is said of the history of these republics ? Why does theix 
history excite interest ? 

6. What were Greece and the inhabitants called by the natives f 
What do the poets style the Greeks ? From whom were the original 
inhabitants descended ? 

7. Who brought to Greece the first rudiments of civilization ? 

Section II. 

1. Into how many general periods may the history of Greece be 
distinguished ? What is the first ? What the second ? 

2. How many years does the first period comprise ? What is said 
efit? 

30 



350 GREECE. 

3. Into how many subdivisions may this period be distinguished ? 
When does the first period begin and end, and what may it be term- 
ed ? The second ?, The third ? The fourth ? 

4. What does the second general division (the period of authentic 
history) comprise ? What is said of its history ? 

5. Into how many parts may this period be divided ? When does 
the first begin and end, and what is said of it ? The second ? The 
third ? The fourth ? 

Section III. 

1. What does the fabulous age comprise ? 

2. By whom was Si<?yon founded ? Argos ? Athens ? Thebes ? 
Corinth ? Mycenae ? Lacedaemon ? 

3. What are some of the memorable events of this period ? What 
else does it embrace ? 

4. What was the first great enterprise recorded of the Greeks ? By 
whom was it commanded ? Who were some of the heroes who ac- 
companied Jason ? 

5. Why were they called Argonauts ? What was their object ? 
What is said of the fleece ? 

Section IV. 

1. To what has the heroic age been compared ? What difference 
is mentioned between the Greeks and the Gothic nations ? 

2. On whose authority does the history of the Trojan war rest ? What 
's said of the Iliad ? 

3. What is said of Helen ? To what oath did her father bind her 
suitors ? Who was the favored individual ? 

4. What is said of Paris ? What did he do on visiting Sparta ? 

5. What was the effect of this treachery ? How many vessels and 
men were conveyed to the Trojan coast ? Who was chosen com- 
mander-in-chief? Who were some of the other most celebrated princes ? 

6. By whom were the Trojans commanded ? What was the final 
result of the siege ? 

7. When did the return of the Heraclidae take place ? 

8. What is said of Hercules ? How long was it after his banish - 
ment when his descendants returned ? What was the consequence 
of it? 

9. What was the effect of this revolution ? 

Section V. 

1. What were the two leading states of Greece, and how were they 
distinguished ? How were their different characters formed ? 

2. Of what was Sparta the capital ? How was the government ad- 
ministered ? 

3. Who was Lycurgus ? With what duty was he intrusted ? 

4. What did he accomplish ? What senate did he institute ? What 
did he do respecting the two kings ? How did he divide the territory ? 

5. What measure did he take respecting commerce, &c. ? How did 
the citizens take their food ? 

6. What was the situation of every citizen ? What was the regula- 
tion respecting infants ? 



GREECE. 351 

7. What was the fact respecting letters ? How were the Spartans 
distinguished ? For what were they noted ? 

8. What were the young especially taught ? What further regula- 
tions were made respecting them ? 

9. What were the institutions of Lycurgus adapted to form ? What 
was considered the great .business of life ? What virtues were cher- 
ished, and what were sacrificed ? 

10. What is said of the women ? What was their education calcula 
ted to give them ? What charge did a mother give her son ? 

11. How long did the institutions of Lycurgus continue in force ? 
What is said of the power and influence of Sparta ? 

12. What took place in process of time ? How were changes intro- 
duced ? 

Section VI. 

1. What is said of Athens ? For what was it distinguished ? 

2. Who was the last king of Athens ? What took place after his 
death r What is said of the office of the archons ? 

3. By whom was the first code of written laws prepared for Athens ? 
What is said of these laws ? What reason did Draco give for the 
severity of his punishments ? 

4. Who afterwards framed a new system of laws ? What did Solon 
attempt to do ? What did he say of his laws ? 

5. In whom did he vest the supreme power ? What was done by 
this assembly ? Of what number did the senate consist ? 

6. What did he encourage ? What further is said respecting his 
laws ? 

7. What effects did the different laws of Athens and Sparta produce ? 
What were the differences at the two cities ? How were an Athenian 
and a Spartan characterized ? 

8. What happened before the death of Solon ? How long did Pisis- 
tratus and his sons continue in power ? What is said of his govern- 
ment ? 

9. To whom did Pisistratus transmit the sovereignty ? By whom 
were they dethroned ? What was their fate ? 

Section VII. 

1. What period is esteemed the most glorious age of Greece ? What 
is said of the victories of the inhabitants over the Persians ? 

2. What was the state of Persia at this period ? What colonies and 
countries were subject to it ? 

3. What gave offence to Darius ? What did he resolve to do ? 

4. What step did Darius first take ? How were his heralds received r 

5. How did Darius begin his hostile attack ? What was the fate of 
the first Persian fleet ? What was done by a second fleet ? How 
numerous was the army that invaded Attica ? By whom was it com- 
manded ? 

6. Where and by whom was this host met ? What was the loss on 
each side ? 

7. How was the merit of Miltiades repaid ? What happened to 
him? 

8. What were the parties into which the Athenians were divided ? 
Who riere the two leaders ? 



352 GREECE. 

9. What is said of Aristides ? What happened while the people 
were giving their votes for his exile ? What did Aristides do ? 

10. What caused a discontinuance of the Persian war ? By whom 
was it renewed ? How large an army is Xerxes said to have collect- 
ed ? 

11. Of what did his fleet consist ? What canal and bridges were 
formed ? 

12. Why did Xerxes shed tears on viewing the vast assemblage ? 

13. What course was taken by the Persians ? Who was leader of 
Athens ? What states took part with Athens ? 

14. What did Leonidas undertake ? What reply did he give to the 
herald of Xerxes, who commanded him to deliver up his arms ? What 
followed ? 

15. What course did Leonidas take ? What was the result ? What 
inscription was written on the monument erected on the spot ? 

16. What did the Persians now do ? What course did the Athenians 
take? 

17. For what were preparations now made ? Of what did the two 
fleets consist ? Who commanded the Grecian fleet ? Where did the 
engagement take place ? What was the issue ? 

18. Who was left by Xerxes to complete the conquest of Greece ? 
Where and by whom was this army met ? What was the issue ? 

19. What took place on the same day of the victory of Plataea ? What 
happened to Xerxes ? 

20. What course did the Greeks pursue ? By whom were the Spar- 
tans and Athenians commanded ? What did they accomplish ? 

21. What is related of Pausanias ? 

22. What is related of Themistocles ? 

23. Who took the direction of affairs in Athens after the banishment 
of Themistocles ? 

24. What victories did Cimon gain ? 

25. What afterwards happened to Cimon ? Who succeeded him ? 

26. What further is related of Cimon ? 

27. How long did the Persian war last ? What were the conditions 
of peace ? 

28. What took place after the death of Cimon ? 

29. What is said of the government of Pericles ? 

30. What is said of the time of the Persian war ? What took place 
after the war with Persia ? What is related of Athens and Sparta ? 

31. What was the effect of the war on the Athenians? By what 
means did they reach the summit of political influence and military 
power ? 

32. On what did the politics of Greece after this turn ? What is 
said of Athens and Sparta, and how did they differ ? 

33. What took place from this period ? What was the effect of an 
acquaintance with Asia ? How was this luxurious spirit directed by 
the Athenians? 

Section VIII. 

1. What was the origin of the Peloponnesian war ? 

2. What is said of this war ? How was it carried on ? 

3. Of what were the Athenians accused ? 

4. What state took the lead ? By what states was she joined * 
What allies had Athens ? What did the forces of each amount to ? 



GREECE. 353 

5. What was done in the first year of the war ? What took place 
in the second year ? Was the war arrested by the plague ? 

6. Who governed Athens after the death of Pericles ? What is 
said of Cleon ? What happened after his death ? 

7. What is said of Alcibiades ? 

8. Who commanded the expedition against Sicily? What was the 
issue of it ? 

9. What is said of Lysander ? What was next done by the Lace- 
daemonians ? 

10. On what conditions were the Athenians spared? How did the 
Peloponnesian war terminate ? 

11. What did Lysander do after the reduction of Athens? How 
many citizens did the thirty tyrants sacrifice in the space of six months ? 
What was done by Thrasybulus ? 

12. What is said of pure democracy at Athens ? How were the 
Athenians characterized ? 

13. Who is at once the glory and the reproach of Athens ? What 
is said of this philosopher ? 

14. What is related of him during hip imprisonment ? 

15. What is said of the philosophy of Socrates? What did he do 
respecting philosophy ? 

16. In what contest were upwards of 10,000 Greek mercenaries 
employed ? Who commanded the Greeks in their retreat ? 

17. What is said of this retreat? 

18. How did the Spartans become involved in the war? What did 
the king of Persia effect by means of bribes ? What course did Ages- 
ilaus take ? 

19. How was the war ended ? What were the conditions of peace ? 

20. What state now rose into importance ? What was done by the 
Spartans ? By whom was the citadel recovered ? 

21. What then ensued ? What were the losses of each in the battle 
of Leuctra ? 

22. What was then done by the Thebans ? How long had it been 
since the country of Laconia had been ravaged? 

23. What course did the Theban commander then take ? What 
other victory did he gain ? 

24. What is said of Epaminondas 1 

25. By what was the battle of Mantinea followed ? In what did the 
Spartans next engage ? What was the issue ? 

Section IX. 

1 . What is said of the history of Greece after the death of Agesilaus ? 
What was the situation of the Grecian affairs ? 

2. What is said of Athens at this time ? What of Sparta ? What 
project did Philip form ? 

3. What is said of the kingdom of Macedon? Who were the in- 
habitants ? 

4. What is said of the Macedonian empire ? Why is it sometimes 
called the Grecian empire ? 

5. Under whom was Philip educated ? What is further said of him ? 
What measures did he adopt to bring the states of Greece under his 
dominion ? 

6. What was the cause of the Sacred War ? What states took part 
ic the contest? 

30 * 



354 GREECE. 

7. What course did Philip adopt ? What was he styled ? What 
part did the Athenians adopt ? 

8. What circumstance again drew Philip into Greece? What was 
the occasion of it ? What states resisted Philip ? What was the 
result of the contest ? 

9. What measures did the conqueror adopt ? 

10. What did Philip next project ? What happened to him ? 

11. By whom was Philip succeeded ? What is said of Alexander ? 

12. What was done by Demosthenes ? What course did Alexander 
take ? What was the fate of the Thebans ? What was the effect of 
these acts ? 

13. What were Alexander's next measures ? Who were his com- 
panions in arms ? 

14. With what force did he cross the Hellespont ? To what place 
did he first proceed ? What did he say respecting Achilles ? 

15. What is related respecting Darius Codomanus ? What were 
the losses on each side in the battle of the Granicus ? What is here 
mentioned respecting Alexander ? 

16. What were the consequences of this victory ? 

17. What battle was fought in the next spring ? What was the 
number ©f the Persian army ? What were the losses ? Where did 
the engagement take place ? 

18. Who fell into the hands of the conqueror ? What offer did Da- 
rius make Alexander, in consequence of his generous conduct ? 

19. What did Parmenio say of the offer ? What was Alexander's 
reply ? What answer did he return to the proposal ? 

20. What was his next course ? What was the consequence of the 
Tyrians refusing his demand ? What piece of cruelty did he exercise ? 

21. What was his next exploit? 

22. Whither did he then proceed ? What did he accomplish ? What 
city did he found ? 

23. What proposal did he receive from Darius on his return ? What 
answer did he return ? 

24. With how large an army did he cross the Euphrates ? What 
losses were sustained in the battle that followed ? Where was this 
battle fought, and what is it called ? 

25. What was the consequence of this battle ? What has since been 
the fact with regard to Europe ? What happened to Darius and the 
empire ? 

26. What was Alexander's next procedure ? What course did his 
soldiers take ? 

27. To what city did Alexander then march his army ? What did 
he do here ? Where and in what manner did he die ? 

28. What is said of Alexander and his course ? 

29. What is said of his abilities and traits of character ? 

30. For what was he distinguished in the early part of his career ? 
What afterwards took place ? 

31. Of what acts of ingratitude and injustice was he guilty? 

32. What does his history show ? 

Section X. 

1. What did Alexander do respecting a successor.'' By what was 
his death followed ? 
2 Who was appointed by his generals ? How was the empire di 



GREECE. 3 

Tided ? What followed ? What was the new division after the battle 
of Ipsus ? 

3. What was the end of the kingdoms of Thrace and Macedonia ? 
What is said of Syria and Egypt? 

4. What was done by the Grecian states during Alexander's con- 
quests ? 

5. What effect did the news of Alexander's death have at Athene ? 
By whom was Demosthenes opposed ? What was the language of 
Phocion ? 

6. How far did the counsels of Demosthenes prevail ? What was 
the fate of Demosthenes ? 

7. By whom was Antipater succeeded ? What took place at Ath- 
ens ? What is related of Phocion ? 

8. By whom was Polysperchon succeeded ? What is said of the 
government of Demetrius Phalereus ? 

9. What was the state of Athens afterwards ? 

10. What was the condition of the Grecian states from this period ? 
By whom was the country ravaged ? 

11. Who next invaded Peloponnesus ? What happened to him ? 

12. By what confederacy was the last effort made in favor of 
Greece ? To whom was the government of this confederacy commit- 
ted ? What design did he form ? 

13. By whom was Aratus succeeded? What is said of him ? 

14. What is related of the Romans ? What was accomplished by 
their army under Quintius Flaminius ? What took place nearly thirty 
years afterwards ? 

15. What part did the Romans take, with respect to the Achaean 
league ? Who sought the assistance of the Romans ? What was 
done by Metellus ? What afterwards took place ? 

16. What is said of Greece after she became subject to the Romans? 
Where were the most distinguished Romans educated ? 

17. What do we see in reviewing the history of the Greeks ? In 
what were they unrivalled ? 

18. What circumstance must impress the readers of the history of 
Athens ? Who were victims of this injustice ? What was done re- 
specting them ? 

19. What is said respecting the supposed virtuous age of Greece ? 
What is said of the morality of the Greeks ? 

20. What is stated by Mitford r 

21. How were the earlier times characterized ? How was it in a 
later age ? What had the history of the world demonstrated ? 

Section XI. — Grecian Antiquities. 

What is said of the Ionic sect ? The Italian or Pythagorean sect ? 
The <Socratic School? The Cynics? The Academic sect? The 
Peripatetic sect ? The Skeptical sect ? The Stoic sect ? The Epi- 
cureans ? 

What does Tytler say respecting the Greek philosophy ? What 
course did its teachers pursue ? 



Who were the seven wise men of Greece ? 



By whom i? the council of the Amphictyons supposed to have been 



356 GREECE. i 

instituted ? Of what was it composed ? Of how many deputies did 
it consist ? When and where did they meet ? 

What were the objects of this assembly ? 

On what occasions were the Greeks in the habit of consulting ora- 
des ? What were their most celebrated oracles ? 

What were the four public games in Greece ? What exercises were 
practised at these games ? 

What is said of running, leaping, and boxing ? 

In honor of whom were the Olympic games instituted ? Where 
and when were they celebrated? What did they draw together ; 
What preparation was required ? 

What oath were the contenders obliged to take? What was tre 
prize bestowed on the victor ? What is said of it ? How was tho 
victor treated ? 

How did the Greeks compute their time ? 

What is said of the Pythian games ? With what were the victors 
Crowned ? 

Where and how often were the Nemean games celebrated ? With 
what were the victors crowned ? 

Why were the Isthmian games so called ? What is said of them ? 
What was the reward of the victors ? 



Into what classes were the inhabitants of Athens divided ? 

Who were the citizens ? Into how many tribes were they divided ? 
What is said of the privilege of citizenship ? 

What was the condition of the sojourners ? 

What is said of the slaves or servants ? 

In what was the supreme executive power vested ? What garlands 
did they wear ? What was the first of the nine called ? What was 
his office ? For what crime was he punished with death ? 

What were the duties of the second archon ? What did the third 
archon superintend ? 

What were the duties of six other archons ? 

Into what three sorts were the Athenian magistrates divided ? 

What rights had the poor citizens ? What were the candidates for 
office obliged to do ? To what were the magistrates liable while in 
office ? What were they obliged to do after their office had expired ? 

Of whom were the assemblies of the people composed ? How often 
and where were they held ? 

Of how many citizens must the assembly consist, in order to trans- 
act business ? How was the decision made ? 

How often was the senate elected, and of how many did it consist? 
What were the duties of the senate ? 

From what was the name of Areopagus taken ? What is said of 
this court ? Of what were the Areopagites guardians ? 

What is said of the ostracism ? Was it necessary that any crime 
should be alleged against the exile ? What is remarked of this insti- 
tution ? 



Of what two classes did the inhabitants of Sparta consist ? 
Into what two classes were the citizens divided ? 
Which were the more numerous, the slaves or the freemen ? What 
did the slaves perform ? 
What were the two chief magistrates ? What were their duties ? 



GREECE. 357 

Of what did the senate consist? What was its authority? Who 
were admitted to this assembly ? 

What were the Ephori ? What was their duty ? 

What were the two public assemblies of Sparta ? When was the 
general assembly convened ? When and for what purposes was the 
lesser assembly held ? 

SYRIA UNDER THE SELEUCID.E. 

1. Who obtained possession of the principal possessions of Alexan- 
der in Asia, after his death ? Who defeated Antigonus ? How long 
did the kingdom of Syria or Syro-Media last ? By what kings was it 
governed? 

2. What is said of Seleucus and his exploits? What is said of 
Antioch ? 

3. What was the end of Seleucus ? By whom was he succeeded ? 

4. What is said of the reigns of Antiochus Theos and Seleucus 
Callinicus ? 

5. Who was one of the most distinguished of this race of sovereigns ? 
What is related of his reign ? 

6. By whom was Antiochus visited ? What did he undertake ? By 
whom and where was he defeated ? 

7. Who were the next two kings ? What was done by the latter ? 
What did the Jews perform ? 

8. What is said of the succeeding reigns ? 

EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES. 

1. What is said of the prosperity of Egypt? How long did the 
dynasty of the Ptolemies last ? 

2. Who was Ptolemy Lagus ? What is said of his history and hi* 
abilities ? 

3. What important public services did he perform ? 

4. By whom was Ptolemy Soter succeeded ? What is related of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus ? What is said of his court ? What celebrated 
version was made during his reign ? 

5. What is said of Ptolemy Evergetes ? With what did his reign 
commence ? What vow was made by his queen ? 

6. How was the hair regarded ? What is said of that of Berenice ? 
What took place respecting it ? 

7. By whom was Ptolemy Evergetes succeeded ? For what was his 
reign distinguished ? What excited his resentment against the Jews ? 

8. What decree did he publish ? What effect did it produce ? What 
did he then command ? What was the consequence ? 

9. What is said of the first three Ptolemies ? What of the others? 

10. Why was Ptolemy Soter so named ? Ptolemy Philadelphus ? 
Ptolemy Evergetes ? Ptolemy Philopater ? Ptolemy Epiphanes ? &c, 

11. Who was the last of the Ptolemies? Who was his queen? 
With whom is her history connected ? What was the manner of hei 
death ? What was the condition of Egypt afterwards 3 

12. What is related respecting the queens of the Ptolemies? 



358 ROME. 

ROME. 

Section I. 

1. What state becomes the leading object of attention, after the 
conquest of Greece ? What is said of its rise and importance ? 
What is remarked of its history ? What is involved in its history ? 

2. What was its extent during its early history ? What change 
afterwards took place ? How long did the empire continue ? 

3. What is said of the early history of the Romans ? What reasons 
are there for supposing there must be a mixture of fiction ? 

4. How is the length of time comprised in the reigns of the seven 
kings regarded ? What happened to several of these kings ? What 
was the average length of their reigns ? 

5. What is remarked respecting the histories of the early ages ? 

6. What account do the poets give of JEneas ? How long was the 
succession continued in his family ? 

7. Of whom was Rhea Sylvia the mother ? What is related of the 
brothers? What did Romulus do after he had built the city of 
Rome ? 

8. How is Romulus said to have divided the people ? Of how many 
members did the senate consist ? From whom were they chosen ? 
How did he attach the two classes to each other ? What duties did 
the patron and client perform to each other ? 

9. By what persons was the king attended ? 

10. Who was the second king of Rome ? Of what town was he a 
native? How is he represented ? What did he do? 

11. Who was the third king ? For what is his reign memorable ? 
What was the issue of this combat ? 

12. Who was the fourth king ? What did he do ? 

13. Who was the successor of Ancus Martius ? What was done by 
him? 

14. What is related of Servius Tullius ? What did he establish ? 
By what was the census closed ? 

15. What were the characters of the two daughters of Servius ? 
What measure did he take with regard to them, in order to secure the 
throne ? How did he attempt to correct their defects ? What was 
the issue ? 

16. How did Tarquin the Proud begin his reign ? What was the 
consequence ? What is related of Sextus ? What course did Lucre- 
tia take ? 

17. What measures were taken to excite the indignation of the peo- 
ple against the Tarquins ? What was done with Tarquin ? 

Section II. 

1. What government was established instead of the regal authority ? 
To whom did the supreme power belong? What two new officers 
were chosen ? What is said of their power ? Who were the first 
consuls ? 

2. What measures were taken by Tarquin ? What partisans had he 
m Rome ? In what plot were the sons of Brutus concerned ? What 



ROME. 359 

course did Brutus take ? What remark is made by an ancient author 
upon his conduct ? 

3. What took place after the insurrection in the city was suppress- 
ed ? What notice was taken of the death of Brutus ? Who was the first 
that enjoyed the reward of a triumph ? 

4. What course did Valerius adopt to regain his popularity ? What 
was the effect of this law ? 

5. How long were the Romans involved in hostilities on account of 
Tarquin ? What was the most remarkable of these wars ? Who dis« 
tinguished themselves in it ? 

6. What other troubles were added to those of war ? What course 
did the plebeians take ? Why was the authority of the consuls of u 
avail ? 

7. What new magistrate was now created ? In what cases was he 
appointed ? What was his authority ? Who was chosen dictator ? What 
was the issue ? What other occasion was there for a dictator ? 

8. What troubles followed after the return of peace ? What course 
did the plebeians adopt, on an alarm of war ? What was their language ? 
What step did they at length take ? 

9. What was the consequence of this procedure ? What was done 
by Menenius Agrippa ? What was granted to the plebeians ? How 
often were tribunes elected, and what was their number ? What two 
other magistrates were appointed? 

10. What did a neglect of agriculture occasion ? In what manner 
did Coriolanus excite the resentment of the people ? What was the 
consequence ? 

11. What law was proposed that caused dissension? Who demand- 
ed such a division of the public lands? 

12. What was the law which Volero caused to be enacted ? What 
was the effect of this law ? 

13. What is related of Cincinnatus ? What did he do after his vic- 
tories ? 

14. What was the fact respecting the laws of the Romans ? Who ad- 
ministered justice ? What is said of their proceedings ? What measures 
were taken to provide a code ? 

15. For what were the decemvirs appointed ? Of what statutes was 
this the origin? 

1 fi. With what were the decemvirs invested ? How did they govern ? 
W nat caused a termination of the office ? 

17. What was one of the crimes of Appius Claudius ? What was 
the other ? 

18. What decree did he pronounce ? What was done by Virginius ? 
What was the effect ? What took place respecting the decemvirs and 
decemvirate ? 

Section III. 

1. What were the barriers which still separated the patricians and 
plebeians ? Which was repealed ? What was the effect ? 

2. What officers were chosen instead of consuls ? Did this institu- 
tion continue long ? 

3. What was prevented by the disorders of the republic ? What 
officers were appointed to remedy this neglect? What was their duty? 
What is said of this office ? 

4 W u, t practice was introduced to avoid the evils arising from the 



ROME. 

people's refusing to enlist in the army? What changes took place 
after this? 

5. What decree was made respecting Veii? What followed? 

6. How did Camillus proceed ? How was he rewarded ? 

7. What is related of the Gauls? In what did they engage? What 
reply did Brennus make to the ambassadors from the senate ? What 
did Brennus do in consequence of the ambassadors' having assisted the 
inhabitants of Clusium ? 

8. What steps did the Gauls take after the battle of Allia ? What en- 
terprise did a body of Gauls perform ? What was the issue ? 

9. On what condition did the Gauls agree to quit the city ? What 
was done by Camillus ? 

10. What afterwards happened to Manlius ? 

11. Against whom did the Romans next turn their arms ? How long 
did this contest last, and how was it carried on ? What disgrace did 
the Samnites cause the Romans to undergo ? What was the effect ? 

12. What war broke out during the consulship of Torquatus Man- 
lius ? What is related respecting the son of Manlius ? 

13. What course did the Tarentines take? With how large an army 
did Pyrrhus land ? What was the issue of the battle ? What exclama- 
tion did Pyrrhus make ? 

14. What generous conduct is related of Fabricius ? What effect did 
this have on Pyrrhus ? 

15. What course did Pyrrhus afterwards take ? Of what did the Ro- 
mans now become masters ? 

Section IV. 

1. With what states does the history of Rome now become con- 
nected ? 

2. By whom was Carthage founded ? What was the government ? 
What was the religion? 

3. What was the situation of Carthage in the time of the Punic 
wars ? What had it under its dominion ? What is said of the character 
of the Carthaginians ? 

4. Did Carthage produce many philosophers ? What generals did it 
produce ? 

5. By whom was Sicily colonized ? What is said of Syracuse ? How 
was it governed ? 

6. What is said of Gelon and his successors ? By whom was the 
regal government restored? By whom was Dionysius the Younger 
dethroned ? 

Section V. 

1. What were the Romans desirous of, after having become masters 
of all Lower Italy ? What conquests had they not yet made ? What is 
said of Carthage ? How are the Carthaginians and Romans compared ? 

2. How was the first Punic war brought on? What was the object 
of both parties ? 

3. What course did the Romans take ? What was their success ? 
What part did the Syracusans act ? 

4. What further advantages did the Romans gain? What course 
was adopted by Regulus ? What was the issue ? What is further re- 
lated of Resrulus ? 



ROME. 361 

5. What was the final issue of the war ? To what terms did the Car- 
thaginians agree ? What was the state of Sicily and Syracuse ? What 
conquest did the Romans next make ? 

6. How long did peace last ? How long was it since the temple of 
Janus had been shut ? 

7. W^hat is said of Hamilcar ? What of Hannibal ? How did Hannibal 
commence the second Punic war ? 

8. What design did Hannibal now form and execute ? What is said 
of the victory of Cannae, and of the losses of the Romans? 

9. For what has Hannibal been censured ? 

10. By whose counsels were the Romans now guided ? What were 
Fabius and Marcellus styled ? What was the subsequent fortune of 
Hannibal ? 

11. What is related respecting Syracuse ? What did it now become ? 
What was the fate of the Carthaginians under Asdrubal ? 

12. What was done by Scipio the Younger ? What course did the 
Carthaginians adopt ? What engagement followed ? What were the 
conditions of peace ? How long did the war continue ? 

13. Where did Hannibal pass the rest of his life ? With whom did he 
hold friendly conversations ? What reply did he make to the question, 
whom he thought the greatest general ? 

14. How did the first Macedonian war terminate ? What victory did 
the Roman army under Scipio Asiaticus gain ? How did the second 
Macedonian war terminate ? 

15. What was the pretext with the Romans for commencing the 
third Punic war ? What is stated of Porcius Cato ? 

16. What was offered on the part of the Carthaginians ? What did 
the Romans require of them ? How was the demand received ? 

17. What was the duration and issue of the siege ? What is related 
respecting the destruction of the city ? 

18. By what other event was the same year signalized ? W T hat other 
conquest did the Romans soon after make ■* 

SCETION VI. 

1. How had the Romans been hitherto characterized ? What changes 
were now introduced ? 

2. What was now the condition of Rome ? What took place after 
there ceased to be danger from a foreign enemy ? 

3. What is related of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus ? What did Ti- 
berius attempt ? What was the issue ? 

4. What is related of his brother Caius? 

5. How did Jugurtha attempt to obtain the crown of Numidia? What 
were his further proceedings ? 

6. Who commanded the Roman army in the war against Jugurtha ? 
What was the issue ? W-hat victory did Marius afterwards gain ? 

7. What gave rise to the Social war ? How many men were destroy- 
ed in it ? How was it ended ? 

8. What design did Mithridates form ? How did he begin the Mithri- 
datic war ? What Romans bore a distinguished part in it ? 

9. What is related respecting Sylla ? What of his rival Marius ? 

10. What course did Sylla take ? What became of Marius ? What 
was performed by Cinna ? What is further related of Marius and 
Cinna ? 

11. What was done by Sylla after returning from his campaign? 

oi 



362 ROME. 

How did he proceed after he had wreaked his vengeance on his ene- 
mies ? What epitaph did he write for himself? How many were slain 
in the civil war between Sylla and Marius ? 

12. What took place after the death of Sylla ? By whom was the 
party of Marius supported ? 

13. By what war was Rome next harassed ? What was its termina- 
tion ? 

14 What took place a few years after the defeat of Spartacus? 
What plan was concerted ? 

15. By whom was this conspiracy detected and crushed ? How was 
it ended ? 

Section VII. 

1. Why was Pompey surnamed the Great? What did he perform? 
How was he received on returning to Rome ? 

2. Who were now the most considerable men in Rome ? What is 
related of Julius Caesar ? What was done by Pompey, Crassus, and 
Caesar ? 

3. How did they distribute the provinces ? What was the course of 
Crassus ? What took place with regard to Caesar and Pompey ? 

4. What course did Caesar take after the division of the provinces ? 
What is said of his career ? How did he continue to give a color of 
justice and humanity to his operations ? What did he acquire ? 

5. What is related of Pompey ? What took place when the term 
of Caesar's government was about to expire ? What then followed ? 
Who were friends of Pompey ? Who were on the side of Caesar? 

6. What preparations had Pompey made ? What reply did he make 
when asked with what troops he expected to oppose Caesar r 

7. What course did Caesar adopt ? What river formed the limits of 
his command ? What did he do on arriving at the banks of this river ? 

8. What effect did the news of this movement have at Rome ? 
What course did Pompey adopt ? By whom was he followed ? 

9. What success did Caesar meet with ? For what purpose did he 
say that he had entered Italy ? What was his next course ? 

10. What part did the monarchs of the East take ? By whom was 
Pompey joined ? 

11. What were Caesar's movements after staying eleven days at 
Rome ? What is said of the importance of the contest? 

12. What force had each of the parties ? What was the feeling on 
the side of Pompey ? What was the issue of the engagement ? 

13. What acts of clemency did Caesar perform ? What is related of 
him on viewing the field of battle ? 

14. What is related of the course and fate of Pompey ? What in- 
scription was placed over his ashes ? What anecdote is related respect- 
ing Caesar? 

15. By whom was the throne of Egypt now possessed ? What is 
mentioned respecting Cleopatra ? What war ensued ? What called 
Caesar away from Egypt ? How did Caesar express the rapidity of his 
victory over Pharnaces ? 

16. What was Caesar's next proceeding ? Over whom did he gain a 
victory at Thapsus in Africa ? What is related of Cato ? 

17. What triumph did Caesar celebrate on returning to Rome ? What 
else did he do to please the army and people ? What effect did these 
acts produce on the multitude and senate ? 



ROME. 363 

18. What expedition was he next obliged to undertake ? What was 
the issue ? 

19. How did he use his power after having subdued all who opposed 
his usurpation ? What did he say respecting his designs ? How did 
he proceed, and what did he perform ? 

20. What rumor was circulated respecting Caesar's designs ? What 
is said of the feelings of the people ? What design was formed against 
him ? What is said of Brutus and of Cassius ? 

21. What time did the conspirators fix upon for executing their de- 
signs ? How did he defend himself, and what was the result ? What 
particulars are mentioned respecting his age and career ? 

22. What three-fold character did Csesar unite ? What is said of his 
claims to regard ? 

23. What is remarked of his career and disposition ? What apology 
has been made for him? What Roman patriots lived in the same 
age? 

24. What remark did he make in passing a village among the Alps ? 
What sentiment of Euripides did he often repeat ? 

25. What is said of his military character, and his popularity with 
his troops ? How are Alexander and Caesar compared ? 

26. What summary does Muller give of Caesar's exploits ? 

27. How did the murder of Caesar affect the Roman people ? What 
was done by Mark Antony, and what was the effect ? 

28. What is related of Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavius ? 

29. What did they stipulate ? Who were some of the persons con- 
signed to death ? What is related respecting the death of Cicero ? 
What persons were sacrificed in the proscription ? 

30. What is related of Brutus and Cassius ? By whom were they 
pursued ? What was the issue ? What course did Brutus and Cassius 
take ? 

31. What is mentioned respecting the triumvirs ? What is related 
of Antony and Cleopatra ? 

32. What was the effect of the battle of Actium ? What course did 
Antony and Cleopatra take ? 

Section VIII. 

1. What is said of the battle of Actium ? What is said of Augustus ? 
What did Agrippa, and what did Maecenas advise him to do ? 

2. To which did Augustus give the preference ? How did he pro- 
ceed ? 

3. What is said of his reputation? What of his reign, and what did 
he effect ? 

4. In what year of his age, and after how long a reign, did he die ? 
What is said of him ? 

5. Of what were Augustus and Maecenas patrons ? What is said of 
the Augustan age ? 

6. By what is the reign of Augustus rendered memorable ? When 
did the birth of our Savior take place ? When did he suffer crucifix- 
ion ? . 

7. By whom was Augustus succeeded ? How did he commence his 
reign ? How did he afterwards proceed ? 

8. How did the successes of Germanicus affect Tiberius ? Whom 
did he then take into his confidence? What did Sejanus persuade 
him to do ? What finally happened to Sejanus and Tiberius ? 



364 ROME. 

9. Whom did Tiberius adopt for his heir and successor ? What is 
related of him and his proceedings ? What does Seneca say of him ? 

10. What took place after the death of Caligula ? Who was raised 
to the throne ? What is said of him ? 

11. What enterprise did he undertake ? What is said of Caractacus ? 
What exclamation did he make on being led through the streets of 
Rome ? 

12. What is related of Messalina ? What of Agrippina ? 

13. By whom was Nero educated ? How did he commence his 
reign ? What is said of his character ? Who were some of the victims 
of nis cruelty ? 

14. Why did he cause Rome to be set on fire ? How did he attempt 
to divert the public odium from himself? 

15. What is said of Nero ? By whom was the conspiracy against 
him headed ? What crimes did Galba enumerate ? What took place 
respecting him ? 

16. Who was declared emperor after the death of Nero ? What is 
said of Galba ? Whom did he adopt for his successor, and what was 
the consequence ? What does Tacitus say of him ? 

17. Who was then proclaimed emperor ? What afterwards took 
place ? What course did Vitellius take on being proclaimed emperor ? 
What afterwards took place ? 

18. How was Vespasian received after being declared emperor ? 
What is said of him and his acts ? 

19. For what is his reign memorable ? What was done to Jerusa- 
lem ? How many perished and were taken prisoners ? What became 
of the survivors ? 

20. By whom was Vespasian succeeded ? What is related of Titus ? 
What event happened during his reign ? By whom was he succeeded ? 

21. What is said of Domitian, his character and habits? 

22. What was the manner of Domitian's death ? By what was his 
reign signalized ? 

23. Who was the last and who the first of the twelve Csesars ? 

Section IX. 

1. Who succeeded Domitian ? What is said of Nerva ? Whom did 
he adopt for his successor ? 

2. What is said of Trajan ? For what has he been commended 3 
What is said of him as a general ? What charge did he give to the 
pretorian prefect on presenting the sword ? What surname did the 
senate confer upon him, and how were they accustomed to hail every 
new emperor ? 

3. What was the extent of the empire in the reign of Trajan ? What 
conquests did he make ? How were his victories commemorated ? 

4. What is said of him with respect to literature ? What is remark- 
ed of his death ? By what was his character tarnished ? 

5. By whom was Trajan succeeded ? What is said of Adrian ? To 
what did bs devote himself? What expedition did he undertake ? 
What was done by him in Britain ? 

6. What did he do respecting Jerusalem ? What course did the 
Jews take ? What destruction was made by the emperor's army ? 
Whom did Adrian adopt for his successor ? 

7. What is said of Titus Antoninus and his reign? What was his 
favorite maxim ? 



ROME. 365 

8. Who succeeded Antoninus Pius ? What is said of him ? To what 
was he attached ? 

9. Did the Antonines permit the persecution of the Christians? 
What was presented to the former of the two ? What happened to 
the army under the latter ? 

10. What are the last five emperors styled? What took place after 
this period ? 

Section X. 

1. By whom was Aurelius succeeded? What is said of Commodus? 
By whom was he succeeded ? What was his fate ? 

2. What was now done with the empire ? Who was proclaimed 
emperor instead of Didius Julianus ? Who were his competitors ? 
What is said of Severus ? What did he do in Britain ? 

3. To whom did Severus leave the empire ? What is related of 
them ? Who succeeded Macrinus ? 

4. What is said of Heliogabalus ? What was his fate ? 

5. By whom was Heliogabalus succeeded ? What is said of Alex- 
ander Severus ? By whom was he murdered and succeeded ? What 
is said of Maximin ? 

b*. How many reigns were there between Alexander Severus and 
Diocletian ? What "was the length of this period r What is said of 
these reigns ? 

7. By whom was Valerian taken prisoner ? Hew was he treated ? 

8. What is said of the reign of Aurelian ? For what was he dis- 
tinguished ? What exploits did he perform ? What took place on his 
return to Rome ? 

9. What is said of Diocletian ? What did he do after he had reigned 
awhile ? How was the empire divided ? 

10. What happened during this reign ? What is said of this perse- 
cution ? 

11. What did Diocletian experience in the latter part of his reign? 
What course did he take ? What did he say of his situation ? 

Section XI. 

1. Where did Constantius die ? Who succeeded him ? What ex- 
traordinary circumstance is related by historians ? 

2. What did Constantine become ? To what did he put an end ? 
What is remarked of his reign ? 

3. What important event took place duiing his reign ? What is 
thought to have been the effect of this measure ? What is said of the 
character of Constantine ? 

4. How did Constantine divide the empire ? Who became sole 
emperor ? What is said of the reign of Constantius ? 

5. By whom was Constantius succeeded ? What is said of him ? 
What did he undertake to do, and what was the issue ? How was he 
killed ? 

6. By whom was Julian succeeded ? Who was next chosen em- 
peror ? What course did he adopt ? What people settled in Thrace ? 

7. Who succeeded Valentinian ? Who became sole emperor after 
the death of Gratian and Valentinian II. ? By what was his reign 
signalized ? What is said of him ? By whom was he succeeded ? 

&. What happened through the weakness of the emperors ? What 

31 * 



366 ROME. 

was done by the Goths ? Who defeated Alaric ? What did Alaric 
afterwards perform ? To what was the city reduced ? 

9. What took place after the ravages of famine ? What was the 
address of Alaric to his army ? What is said of the devastation ? 

10. What did the Goths do after the death of Alaric ? 

11. What took place after the sacking of Rome by Alaric ? What 
defeat did Attila suffer ? What did he do afterwards ? 

12. What was the occasion of the invasion of Genseric ? What was 
performed by him ? 

13. What took place with regard to the Western Empire after the 
death of Valentinian III. ? 

14. What is said of the rise and fall of the empire ? 

Section XII. 

1. How long did the kingdom of the Heruli continue ? By whom 
was it terminated ? Where was the residence of Theodoric ? Who 
defeated Theodotus ? What afterwards took place ? 

2. What was done by Narses after he was recalled by Justin ? 
What was done by Alboin ? How long did the kingdom of the Lom- 
bards last ? By whom was it overthrown ? What is said of the peri- 
od from Theodosius to the establishment of the Lombards in Italy ? 

3. What is said of the Goths ? Why were the Ostrogoths and Visi- 
goths so called ? Who were the Heruli and Lombards ? 

4. What is said of the Eastern Empire ? 

5. When was this empire in the meridian of its glory ? What is 
said of the code of Justinian ? 

6. What was performed by Belisarius and Narses ? What church 
was built by Justinian ? What is remarked of him and his successors ? 

7. What happened after the removal of the seat of empire ? How 
did this controversy terminate ? 

8. What was done by the Crusaders in 1204 ? How long did their 
dominion continue ? What was the seat of the Greek emperors during 
this time : 

9. When and by whom was an end put to the Eastern Empire ? 

Section XIII. Roman Antiquities. 

2. To whom has the whole structure of the Roman constitution under 
the monarchy been attributed ? What was doubtless true ? 

3. What three divisions of the people are attributed to Romulus? 
Who added a fourth tribe ? How were the tribes named ? 

4. What other division was made by Servius ? How were the classes 
formed ? How many centuries were there ? 

5. What order was added to. those of patricians and plebeians ? Of 
whom were the knights composed ? 

6. Who were the nobiles f The homines novi ? The ignobiles ? The 
ingenui ? The liberti or libertini ? 

7. Of whom did the Roman citizens consist ? 

8. Who were the slaves ? How were they considered ? How did men 
become slaves ? 

9. What is said of the kings? What could they not do of themselves ? 
What were their badges ? In what did they sit, and by whom were 
they attended ? 

10. Of how many members did the senate consist ? How were they 
chosen ? How often did they meet ? What was a senates consuUum ? 



ROME. 367 

Why were the senators styled patres ? Why did the patricians derive 
their name from them ? 

11. Why were the magistrates previous to their election styled 
candidati ? 

12. How were the Roman magistrates divided ? Who were the ordina- 
ry magistrates ? The extraordinary ? The provincial ? 

13. What is said of the consuls ? What was done respecting them in 
dangerous conjunctures ? What age was requisite in order to be a 
consul ? 

14. What is said of the pretor ? What were his duties ? 

15. What is said of the office of censor f How many censors were 
there, and what were their duties ? 

16. For what purpose was the office of the tribunes instituted ? 

17. What were the duties of edilcs ? What two kinds were there ? 

18. What duties did the questors perform ? What were the duties 
of the military questors ? The provincial questors ? 

19. What were the comitia ? How many kinds were there ? For 
what purpose were the comitia summoned ? 

20. Of what did the comitia curiata consist ? 

21 . What is said of the comitia centuriata ? What was done by them ? 
Where did they meet ? 

22. What were the comitia tributa ? For what wera they held ? 

23. How long did the comitia continue to be assembled ? Who 
discontinued them ? 

24. What is said of the priests or ministers of religion ? What priests 
were common to all the gods ? 

25. What is said of the pontijices ? Of the pontifex maximus ? 

26. What is said of the augurs ? What of their office ? In what 
five ways did they divine ? 

27. Who were the karuspices ? From what did they derive their 
omens ? 

28. Who were the quindecemxiri? What were the Sibylline books 
Supposed to contain ? 

29. Who were the septemviri ? 

30. What were the priests of particular deities called ? Who were 
the chief of them ? 

31. Where did the Romans worship their gods? Of what did their 
worship consist ? 

32. What festivals were there among the Romans ? Which were 
the most celebrated ? 

33. What games or shows were exhibited ? 

34. Who were the gladiators ? When were these combats intro- 
duced ? Of whom were the combatants composed ? What took place 
in these exhibitions ? What is related of the spectacles exhibited after 
the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians ? 

35. What was a triumph? On whom was the honor bestowed? 
What is said of the procession ? Of whom was it composed ? 

36. What were the most distinguished parts of the Roman dress T 
What was the toga ? By whom was the toga virilis assumed ? What 
was the tunica ? 

37. What was the principal meal among the Romans ? On what did 
the early Romans chiefly live ? How was it afterwards ? How did 
they place themselves at their meals ? What was their ordinary drink ? 

38. What was the Forum f By what was it surrounded ? 

39. What was the Campus Martius ? By what was it adorned ? 



368 THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 

1. What do the Middle Ages comprise ? What was the state of 
Europe during these centuries ? 

2. When did the migration of the Goths, Vandals, Huns, &c. take 
place? Of what did they possess themselves ? What followed ? At 
what time did literature begin to decline ? When was the darkest 
period ? 

3 What is related respecting these times ? To what was the learn- 
ing which existed confined ? 

4. What was the state of morals and of Christianity ? What was the 
political state of Europe ? 

5. What methods of discovering guilt or innocence were used ? 

6. What was the most considerable empire that existed in Europe 
during the Middle Ages ? What impostor appeared in these ages ? 
At what period did the Saracens cultivate literature ? 

7. What are some of the most remarkable circumstances which char- 
acterized these ages ? 

THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 

1. What is said of the Arabians before the time of Mahomet? 

2. What is related of the Saracens ? 

3. What is said of the introduction of Christianity into Arabia ? 
What kind of Christianity was it ? 

4. What is said of Mahomet ? How was the Koran formed ? On 
what did Mahomet rely as proofs of his inspiration ? 

5. What were his two leading doctrines ? What other persons did 
he admit to have been inspired ? What did he adopt and retain ? 
To what did he chiefly owe his success ? < 

6. How did he propagate his religion, and stimulate his followers ? 
What was inculcated as a fundamental doctrine ? What do the 
Saracens term their religion ? 

7. How did Mahomet at first succeed ? Who were his first con- 
verts ? 

8. What was he compelled to do ? What is said of his Flight or 
Hegira ? How did he enter Medina ? What was his subsequent career ? 

9. What was the manner of Mahomet's proceeding ? What furthet 
is said of his character ? 

10. By whom was Mahomet succeeded ? What is the meaning of 
caliph? What is related of Abu-bekir ? Who was his successor ? 

11. What conquests did Omar make? 

12. What answer did Omar give, when requested 4 o spare the Alex- 
andrian library ? How many volumes did the library contain ? 

13. What did Omar perform in the space of ten years ? By whom 
was he succeeded ? Who was elected after the death of Othman ? 
What is said of him ? 

14. What is related of the progress and extent of the Saracen em- 
pire ? 

15. For what is the reign of Ali remarkable ? What is said of the 
partisans of Ali ? What of his opponents ? Who belong to each ? 



THE SARACENS. 369 

16. To what place did Ali remove the seat of the sovereigns ? To 
what place was it afterwards removed ? What caliphate ranked next 
to that of Bagdad ? What is related of Walid ? 

17. What was the first race of the caliphs styled ? The second ? 
What is related of Almansor ? 

18. What is said of the reign of Haroun al Raschid ? By what did 
he render himself illustrious ? What are to be referred to these times ? 
What sciences were cultivated ? What is said of the successors of 
Haroun al Raschid ? 

19. What took place with respect to Arabia after the seat of govern- 
ment was removed to Bagdad ? 

20. What is remarked of the Saracens and their states ? How did 
Spain, Egypt, Morocco, and India regard the caliph of Bagdad ? 

21. How many caliphs did the house of Abbas furnish? How long 
did Bagdad continue the seat of empire ? When and by whom was 
the caliphate abolished ? 

22. What is said of the immediate successors of Mahomet ? What 
were their manners ? How did they proceed after their power was 
established ? 

23. What is said of the power of the caliphs ? Was there any privi- 
leged order ? By what were they bound to observe the duties of hu- 
manity and justice ? What office did theirs resemble ? 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

1. What was the origin of the Feudal System ? By what sove- 
reigns was it adopted ? 

2. How did the northern barbarians dispose of their conquered 
lands ? Who had the largest portion ? What were those who receiv- 
ed lands bound to render ? 

3. How did the courtiers manage ? How is a feudal kingdom de- 
scribed ? 

4. What is said of the barons or lords? 

5. What was the fundamental principle of this system ? What were 
the grantor and those to whom he made grants styled ? How was the 
service esteemed ? 

6. What was the condition of the great mass of the people ? 

7. What is said of the feudal government ? What did a kingdom 
resemble ? 

8. What did a kingdom often exhibit ? In what period was Europe 
in a state of anarchy and war ? 

9. What were the principal causes of the overthrow of the Feudal 
System ? In what countries does it still exist ? 



THE CRUSADES. 

1. What were the crusades? What nations engaged in them? 
What is related of the Saracens ? What of the Turks ? What is said 
of the dangers of pilgrimage ? 

2. What is related of Peter the Hermit ? 

3 What course did pope Urban II. take ? How was the project 



370 THE CRUSADES. 

opened ? Why were these expeditions termed Crusades? What wag 
granted to all who devoted themselves to the service ? 

4. What description of persons took the cross ? What were their 
inducements? What was done by Peter the Hermit? By what 
was Peter's army followed ? What was their fate ? 

5. What is said of the other part of the expedition ? Who were the 
commanders ? To what did the force amount ? 

6. What did they accomplish ? What was the fortune of God- 
frey ? 

7. How did the conquerors divide Syria and Palestine ? What 
afterwards took place ? What was the fate of the army under 
Hugh ? 

8. By whom was the second crusade preached, and who engaged 
in it ? What was the issue ? 

9. What is related of Saladin ? 

10. Who united in the thjrd crusade ? What happened to Frederick ? 
What is said of the French and English ? 

11. What did Richard perform? What happened to him on his 
return ? 

12. Who engaged in the fourth crusade ? What was his fortune ? 

13. What was performed by John de Brienne ? 

14. What is said of St. Louis IX. ? 

15. What was his success ? How did his crusade against the Moors 
terminate ? 

16. To what did the crusades owe their origin ? What is said of 
them ? What character did they assume ? What were some of their 
effects ? How many Europeans were buried in the East while they 
lasted ? What became of those who survived ? 

17. Of what beneficial effects were they productive ? In what were 
these effects observable ? 

18. What system prevailed in Europe at this period ? What were 
the barons who engaged in the crusade, obliged to do ? What was the 
effect ? How did kings raise money ? 

19. What is said of the manners and mode of life that prevailed in 
Europe ? With what did the crusaders become acquainted in the 
East ? To what institutions did the crusades give rise ? 

20. What was the effect of the crusades on commerce and the arts ? 
How had commerce before this period been carried on ? What 
changes afterwards took place ? 

21. What was the effect of the crusades on literature and religion ? 
What is said of the period of their commencement and duration? 
What took place after two centuries of disaster ? 

22. Were these benefits designed by the projectors ? 



CHIVALRY. 

1. What is said of Chivalry ? What does it constitute with regard 
to the Middle Ages ? What were its distinguishing features ? 

2. What is said of the early history of chivalry ? When did it ori- 
ginate ? Where were its principles found before ? By what was it 
tmbr iied into form ? What was the effect of the crusades upon it ' 

3 In what countries did chivalry prevail ? 

A How were the sons of noblemen destined for chivalry disci pi in 



CHIVALRY. 37J 

ed ? What was the place of their education ? What were their differ- 
ent titles ? 

5. How were they managed ? By whom were they surrounded ? 
What were they taught ? 

6. What were they taught by the ladies of the castle ? What were 
they accustomed to do in order that they might have opportunity to 
practise the instructions which they received ? 

7. What was the proper age for admission to the honors of knight- 
hood ? How did the candidate prepare himself? 

8. What did he do after having performed the preliminary rites ? 

9. What were the insignia of chivalry which he received from the 
knights and the ladies ? In what manner was he dubbed ? 

10. What was the most important part of the equipments of a 
knight ? What were his weapon and arms ? What was his dress ? 

11. What virtues and endowments were necessary to form an ac- 
complished knight ? 

12. In what estimation was chivalry held ? What did one become 
on being dubbed ? What had he a right to do ? 

13. What was he authorized to do ? How did he proceed in rela- 
tion to his mistress ? What was the injunction of a sovereign when 
he led his army to the attack? 

14. What is said of the influence of chivalry on the female sex? 
What was the duty of the knights with regard to the ladies ? 

15. What is said of the behavior of a knight with regard to the 
fair sex ? 

16. Of what were the knights and ladies ambitious ? 

17. What virtues did chivalry enjoin ? How was a chevalier treat- 
ed on entering the castle of another ? If he arrived wounded, how 
was he received ? 

18. What were the favorite amusements and exercises of the 
knights ? What does Hallam say of the tournaments ? 

19. What is said of the reward of the victor ? 

20. What is said of the influence of chivalry ? What effects are 
mentioned ? 

21. With what did chivalry rise and fall ? What put an end both 
to the feudal system and to chivalry ? 

22. What does Dr. Robertson say of the exploits of the knights, 
and of the effects of chivalry ? During what centuries were the 
effects of chivalry most felt ? 

23. What is said of the morals of chivalry ? What productions 
afford evidence of dissolute morals ? 

24. What was professed and what performed by the knights? 
What did chivalry nourish ? To what did it give birth ? 

25. To whom is the origin of the duel traced ? How far did it pre- 
vail among the Germans, Danes, and Franks ? 

26. What is related respecting its regulations ? For what purpose 
was it then resorted to ? For what end is it now practised ? 



372 FRANCE. 



MODERN HISTORY. 

1. What different periods have been adopted for the commence- 
ment of Modern History ? 

2. What is the most convenient method in treating of the history of 
the several European states ? What European sovereignty traces its 
origin farther back than the 9th century ? 

3. What is said of the period that succeeded the downfall of the 
Eastern Empire ? What do we see on casting an eye back to this 
period ? 

4. What were some of the causes of the beneficial changes ? 

5. What is said of the Hanse Towns ? When did this association 
commence and flourish ? 

6. When had Venice, Genoa, and Pisa the management of Euro- 
pean commerce ? What states took the lead in the maritime discov- 
eries of the 15th and 16th centuries ? 

7. By what states have Spain and Portugal been succeeded in mar- 
itime enterprise ? 

8. What are now the most powerful European monarchies ? What 
are the countries of which the history is most important to Ameri- 
cans ? 

FRANCE. 
Section I. 

1. What is said of the history of France and of England ? How long 
did the kings of England hold possessions in France ? 

2. Who were the ancestors of the French? What did ancient Gaul 
comprehend ? By whom and when was it conquered ? From what 
people did it receive its modern name ? 

3. What is related of the Franks ? What is the first race of French 
kings styled ? Who is regarded as the founder of the monarchy ? 
What did he perform ? 

4. What is said of the Merovingian kings ? What is related of Pe- 
pin d'Heristel and Charles Martel? 

5. How did Pepin obtain the crown ? Of what race of kings was 
he the founder ? How did Pepin reward the pope ? 

6. By whom was Pepin succeeded ? 

7. What is related of Charlemagne ? When was he crowned em- 
peror of the West ? What did his empire comprise ? 

8. What is said of Charlemagne's services to literature ? How did 
he manifest his zeal for religion ? 

9. What is related of his private character and habits ? 

10. By whom was Charlemagne succeeded ? What great battle was 
fought by the rival brothers ? What division of the empire followed ? 

11. By whom was Charles the Bald succeeded ? Who was elected 
after the short reign of his sons, Louis III. and Carloman ? What 
event followed ? 

12. To whom was the crown next given ? What took place during 
the reign of Charles the Simple ? 

13. What took place during the reigns of Louis IV. and Lothaire ? 
What is related of Hugh Capet ? 



FRANCE. 373 



Section II. 

1. By whom was Hugh Capet succeeded ? 

2. What law was enacted during the reign of Henry I. ? 

3. By what was the reign of Philip I. signalized ? What may be 
dated from the invasion of France by William the Conqueror ? 

4. What is said of Louis VI. ? 

5. What three eminent men flourished during the reign of LouisVI. ? 

6. What act of violence did Louis perform ? To what did the re- 
morse which he felt give rise ? 

7. Who was the wife of Louis, and what is related of her? 

8. What is said of Philip Augustus ? How did he signalize the 
commencement of his reign ? 

9. Of what did Philip accuse John, king of England, and of what 
did he deprive him ? 

10. By whom was Philip succeeded ? 

11. What is said of Louis IX. ? For what was he distinguished * 
What was his principal weakness ? 

12. By whom was St. Louis succeeded ? What event took place 
during his reign ? 

13. What is said of Philip IV. ? How was he involved in a quarrel 
with pope Boniface ? 

14. What took place after the death of Boniface ? What is the re- 
moval of the seat of the papacy to Avignon called ? What other acta 
did Philip perform ? 

15. By whom was Philip succeeded ? For what was the reign of 
Philip V. noted ? 

Section III. 

1. What is said of the children of Philip the Fair ? On whom did 
the throne devolve after the death of Charles the Fair ? 

2. Who claimed the crown ? To what did this claim of Edward 
give rise ? What did Edward perform ? What favorable event hap- 
pened to Philip in the midst of his misfortunes ? 

3. By whom was Philip succeeded, and what happened to him ? 

4. Who next ascended the throne ? What measures did Charles V. 
adopt, and what was performed ? 

5. What is said of Charles ? How large a library did he collect ? 

6. By whom was Charles V. succeeded ? What is said of him and 
of his reign ? Who was his queen ? 

7. What advantages did Henry V. of England gain ? 

8. Who next succeeded to the throne ? What place did the Eng- 
lish besiege, and with what success ? 

9. By whom was the power of England overthrown? Who was 
this heroine ? 

10. How did she execute her exploit ? How did Charles succeed * 
What course did Joan then take, and what was her fate ? 

11. What was the success of the French? What is further related 
of Charles ? 

12. What is said of the character and reign of Louis XI. ? 

13. In what war was he involved with the nobles ? 

14. What is said of Charles VIII. ? In what expedition did he en 

32 



374 FRANCE. 



Section IV. 



1. By whom was Charles VIII. succeeded? What was the charac- 
ter of Louis XII. What did he say with respect to those ministers 
who had treated him ill before he came to the throne ? 

2. What is related of his exploits and success ? 

3. What is said of the republic of Venice ? Who projected the 
League of Cambray against it ? What was the issue ? 

4. What victory did the French gain ? What took place after the 
death of Gaston de Foix ? 

5. Who succeeded Louis XII. ? What is said of Francis ? 

6. For what wtx'e Francis and Charles rival candidates ? What did 
Francis say with respect to the object of competition ? 

7. What was the issue, and how did it affect the two rivals? 

8. For what is the reign of Charles V. distinguished ? What is said 
of Charles and other contemporary sovereigns ? 

9. What was the commencement of the contest between the two 
rivals ? What is related respecting the constable of Bourbon ? What 
happened to the king of France at Pavia? 

10. What course did Charles take with regard to Francis ? What 
did the French king do after being set at liberty ? What is said of 
the conduct of the two sovereigns ? 

11. How did the two monarchs treat each other, when they met at 
Aigues Mortes, after having been at war for 20 years ? What after- 
wards took place ? 

12. What was the occasion of the renewal of the war ? What was 
the issue ? 

13. How did Francis leave his kingdom ? What did he patronize ? 
What did the French court acquire at this period ? 

14. What qualities did Francis possess ? What was his character? 

15. Who was the successor of Francis, and what is said of Henry 
II. ? What is said of his reign ? What great events took place during 
this war ? 

16. How was this war terminated ? By what other events was the 
reign of Henry signalized ? 

17. Who was the successor of Henry ? Who succeeded Francis II. ? 

18. What was now the state of Protestantism in France ? 

19. Who was at the head of the Catholics ? For what purpose was 
the conspiracy of Amboise formed ? What was the issue of it ? 

20. What edict was published after the conference at Poissy ? What 
happened soon afterwards ? 

21. What was the progress of the war ? 

22. What were the facts respecting the massacre on St. Bartholo- 
mew's day ? What does Thuanus say of it ? , 

23. What did Charles say on giving directions ? What was done 
at Rome on hearing the news ? What is said of Charles ? Through 
whose influence were many wise laws enacted during this reign ? 

24. By whom was Charles succeeded ? What was the effect of the 
massr^re of St. Bartholomew ? What did Henry do for the Protes- 
tents ? What course did ^he Catholics take ? 

25. What measure was the king persuaded to adopt ? How did he 
find himself situated, and what did he do? What was the conse- 
quence ? 



FRANCE. 375 



Section V. 



1. To whom did the throne pass after the death of Henry III. 
What is said of the mother of Henry IV., and of himself ? 

2. What is said of the army of the League ? In what battle di« 
Henry defeat it ? 

3. Why did Henry change his religion ? What followed ? What 
did he do in favor of the Calvinists ? 

4. To what did Henry turn his attention after being quietly seated 
on the throne ? By whom was he assisted ? What change was 
effected ? 

5. What romantic scheme did Henry form ? What happened to 
him before he executed his design ? 

6. What is said of the character of Henry ? What was his reply 
when asked what the revenue of France amounted to ? 

7. What were the defects of his character ? How many persons 
were killed in duels during the first eighteen years of his reign ? 

8. By whom was Henry succeeded ? What is said of Mary de Med- 
icis? What is related of Cardinal Richelieu, his policy, and objects? 

9. What course did the Protestants take ? What measure did 
Richelieu adopt ? What was the issue ? 

10. What is further related respecting the proceedings of Richelieu ? 
By whom was a rebellion excited ? What did Richelieu effect ? 

11. What is said of the character of Louis ? 

12. Who next succeeded to the throne ? Who was chosen minis- 
ter ? What is said of Mazarin ? By what was his administration sig- 
nalized ? 

13. What took place after the death of Mazarin ? What is related 
of Louis and his exploits ? 

14. Who were some of his chief men in the cabinet and in the field ? 

15. What. success did Louis meet with ? What is related respect- 
ing the two devastations of the Palatinate ? 

16. W T hat events afterwards took place? What were the conse- 
quences of Louis's conquests and of his ambition? 

17. What states united against him in the League of Augsburg ? 
What alliance was formed in 1701 ? Against whom had the armies 
of Louis now to contend ? What victories did Marlborough and 
Prince Eugene gain ? 

18. What was one of the worst measures of Louis ? What was done 
by this act ? What did France lose by it ? 

19. How long was the reign of Louis ? What is said of it ? 

20. What is said of the person and manners of Louis? 

21. What is said of his talents and character ? What did he patron 
ize, and how is his reign regarded ? 

Section VI. 

1. Who succeeded Louis XIV. ? For what is the regency of the 
Duke of Orleans remarkable ? 

2. Whom did Louis XV. choose for his minister after coming of 
age ? What is said of the administration of Fleury ? 

3. In what war was France involved after the death of Fleury ? 
Who were the two claimants for the imperial throne ? By whom 



376 FRANCE. 

were they supported ? Where were the French defeated, and what 
battle did they gain ? How were hostilities terminated ? 

4. What war broke out in 1775 ? How was it terminated ? How 
was the remainder of this reign chiefly occupied ? 

5. What is said of Louis ? What title was conferred upon him 
by his subjects ? What induced them to retract it ? What is further 
said of him and his reign ? 

6. Who succeeded to the throne? What is said of Louis XVI.? 
What were the difficulties of his situation ? 

7. What was one of his first measures ? Who were appointed to 
office ? What was the effect ? 

8. What is said of Necker ? What followed after he was displaced ? 

9. What took place after the war broke out between Great Britain 
and her American colonies ? What was the state ©f affairs after the 
return of peace ? 

10. What were some of the principal causes of the French revolu- 
tion ? What was the more immediate cause ? 

11. What measure did Louis adopt by the advice of Calonne ? What 
was proposed to the assembly of the Notables ? How did they receive it? 

12. By whom was Calonne succeeded ? What body was next as- 
sembled ? Of what orders was the States General composed ? 

13. What did Necker propose respecting the States General ? What 
was the result ? 

14. How did the king address the states general ? What difficulties arose? 

15. What measure did the commons adopt ? Who were leading 
members in the National Assembly ? 

16. What is said of their measures ? In what situation were the 
king and nobility placed ? 

17. What is said of the dismissal of Necker ? What outrages were 
committed ? What is said of the king and royal family ? 

18. What is said of the progress of the revolution and changes 
which were effected ? 

19 What was the next great design of the assembly ? What is 
related of Louis ? What of the constitution ? 

20. What was the next assembly styled ? What is related of the 
Jacobin club ? 

21. What new body next met ? What was done at their first sitting ? 
What is related respecting the king ? 

22. What were some of the remarks of Deseze in defence of Louis ? 

23. By what majority was the king condemned ? What is further 
related of him ? 

Sectioic VII. 

1. In what was the executive power now lodged ? What is the dom- 
ination of Robespierre and his associates styled ? What two parties 
arose in the National Convention ? Who were the leaders ? 

2. What did the Mountain party do ? What is related of the Duke 
of Orleans ? 

3. To what further excesses did the Convention proceed ? What 
was done to the churches ? 

4. How was the convention divided anew ? What followed ? In 
what was the executive power afterwards vested ? How many con- 
stitutions were formed from 1791 to 1799 ? In whom was the execu- 
tive power vested by the fourth ? 



FRANCE. 377 

5 What was the French revolution at first ? What did it become ? 
What change did it effect ? 

6. What course was taken by many of the nobility and clergy be- 
fore the execution of the king ? What was the effect ? Of what 
was this the origin ? What states declared war against France after 
the death of the king ? 

7. What is said of the Duke of Brunswick ? 

8. What was the issue of the invasion ? What advantages did 
France gain ? To whom was the command of the army in Italy giv- 
en ? What did Bonaparte accomplish ? 

9. When was the Second Coalition formed ? What had Bonaparte 
done before this event? 

10. What advantages were gained over the French in 1799 ? What 
did Bonaparte do at this crisis ? 

11. What change now took place in the affairs of France ? 

12. What achievements did Bonaparte then perform ? To what 
events did the victories of Marengo and Hohenlinden lead ? 

13. What is said of the limits of France and power of Bonaparte ? 
What measure did the Convention adopt with regard to religion ? 

14. To what office was Bonaparte now raised ? By whom was a 
conspiracy formed against him? What became of the conspirators.*' 
What were Bonaparte's next elevations ? 

15. When and by what powers was the Third Coalition formed ? 
What course did Bonaparte then take, and with what success ? What 
followed the victory of Austerlitz ? 

16. What victory was gained by Lord Nelson a little before the 
battle of Austerlitz ? 

17. What course did Bonaparte take with regard to Naples and Hol- 
land ? What with respect to the German empire ? What was done 
by Francis II. ? What electors did Bonaparte raise to the rank of kings ? 

18. How and by whom was the Fourth Coalition formed? What 
battles did Bonaparte gain ? What did he do on entering the capital 
of Prussia ? What other battle did the French army gain ? 

19. What were the next proceedings of Bonaparte ? What treaties 
were made with Russia and Prussia ? What was done with the prov- 
inces conquered from Prussia ? 

20. What course did the British government take in retaliation of the 
Berlin Decree ? What was done by the emperor after the peace of Tilsit? 

21. How did Bonaparte seem to be affected by his success? What 
did he do respecting Spain and Portugal ? 

22. How did he dispose of the throne of Spain ? 

23. What part did the Spaniards take ? How long did the war last ? 
Who commanded the forces of England and Spain ? What were 
some of the principal exploits ? 

24. With what empire was France again involved in war ? What 
successes did Bonaparte gain ? 

25. To what terms was the emperor of Austria compelled to submit 
by the treaty of Vienna ? What followed in consequence of this treaty ? 

26. To what did Alexander accede by the treaty of Tilsit, and what 
were its consequences ? How was the year 1811 spent ? What meas- 
ures did Bonaparte adopt? 

27. Whither did he direct his march ? What events followed ? Why 
was Moscow burnt ? 

28. How did this transaction affect Bonaparte, and what had he ex- 
pected ? What course was he compelled to adopt ? 

32 * 



378 ENGLAND. 

29. What is said of his retreat ? "What losses were sustained ? 

30. What course did the French emperor pursue ? How large an 
army did he now raise ? By what was he opposed ? 

31. What were the next events ? What is said of the battle of Leip- 
sic~ 



32. What course did Bonaparte now take ? What was done by the 
Allies ? 

33. What measure was Bonaparte now compelled to adopt, and 
what place was fixed upon for his residence ? What followed ? 

34. For what purpose was the Congress of Vienna assembled? 
What did Bonaparte now undertake ? How did he proceed i What 
is said of his progress ? 

35. What measures did he take to strengthen his authority ? 

36. What was done by the Congress of Vienna ? What events fol- 
lowed ? 

37. What is said of the battle of Waterloo ? What course did Bo- 
naparte now take ? What was done with him by the allied sovereigns ? 
When did Bonaparte die, and at what age ? 

38. What is said of the career of Bonaparte ? At what age was he 
raised to his several elevations? What is said of his power? 

39. Why may he be called a king-maker ? What is remarked of the 
last four kings ? 

40. What did he unite in his own person ? What is said of his 
deeds ? For what is France indebted to him ? 

41. Of what beneficial measures was he the author? What was 
his ruling passion ? What is said of his opportunity of being useful ? 
What did he choose to be ? . ' 

42. What is further said of him and his career ? 

43. What took place after the second dethronement of Bonaparte ? 
What measures were adopted with regard to France ? When was the 
army of occupation withdrawn ? What is said of Murat and Ney ? 

44. What was the principal event during the reign of Louis XVIII. ? 
By whom has he been succeeded ? 



ENGLAND. 

Section I. 

1. What is said of the history of England ? 

2. What conflicts have been maintained in England ? 

3. Why is the history of England interesting to the citizens of the 
United States ? 

4. Why do we feel an interest in the conflicts which civil and reli- 
gious liberty has had with despotism and bigotry in England ? 

5. When did Julius Caesar invade Britain ? Who defeated Caracta- 
cus ? By whom was the Roman dominion completely established ? 

6 What sort of people were the Britons at the time of the con 
quest? What were their habits and their religion ? 

7. What three walls did the Romans build across Britain ? When 
did they entirely abandon the country ? 

8. By whom was the southern part of the island afterwards invad- 
ed ? To whom did the Britons apply for assistance ? What was the 
rceul t ? 



ENGLAND. 379 

9. What course did the Saxons take ? From whom ia the name of 
England derived ? 

10. What is related of Arthur ? How long did the Heptarchy sub- 
sist ? Who united the seven kingdoms into one monarchy ? 

11. How was Christianity introduced ? 

Section II. 

1. What is related of the Danes ? 

2. What is said of Alfred and of his contest with the Danes ? What 
was he compelled to do ? 

3. What stratagem did he use ? What was his success ? 

4. How did he employ himself after tranquillity was restored? 
What measures are attributed to him ? 

5. What is said of the character of Alfred ? 

6. By whom was he succeeded ? What is said of Edward ? 

7. What is related of Athelstan ? 

8. What is related of Edmund ? Of Edred ? Of Dunstan ? 

9. What is mentioned of Edwy or Edwin ? 

10. For what is the reign of Edgar remarkable ? 

11. By whom was Edgar succeeded ? What is said of Edward ? 

12. What outrage was committed by Ethelred that exasperated the 
Danes ? 

13. What did the Danes accomplish ? Who succeeded Ethelred ? 

14. What took place after the death of Sweyn ? What did Canute 
accomplish ? What is said of him ? 

15. What two other Danish kings succeeded to the throne ? 

16. Who was then raised to the throne ? What is said of Edward ? 
With what privilege was he said to be favored ? How long was the 
practice of touching for the king's evil by the English kings con- 
tinued ? 

17. To whom did Edward bequeath the crown ? Who was elected 
by the nobility ? 

18. What did William resolve to d- ? What followed? What 
losses were sustained ? What was the issr.e ? 

Section III. 

1. What is said of William ? What does Mr. Burke say of him I 

2. In what way did he disgust the English ? What changes did he 
introduce ? 

3. What did he do by his forest laws ? How did he form the New 
Forest ? What was one of the most useful acts of his reign ? 

4. What is said of William II. and his reign ? 

5. In what way did Henry I. obtain the crown? What more did he 
do respecting his brother ? 

6. How were the Saxon and Norman families united ? What af- 
fliction did Henry suffer, and what is said of him ? 

7. Who was the rightful heir to the crown after the death of Henry ? 
Who usurped the throne ? What followed ? 

8. What was done by Henry ? What followed ? What is said of 
Stephen's reign ? 



380 ENGLAND. 

Section IV. 

1. What is said of Henry II. ? Why is he called Shortmantle ? What 
did he possess besides England ? 

2. To whom do some of the most remarkable events of his reign 
relate ? What is said of Becket ? How did he conduct himself as 
chancellor and as archbishop ? 

3. What is related of the power and crimes of the clergy ? 

4. For what purpose were the Constitutions of Clarendon framed ? 
What exclamation did Henry make respecting Becket ? What fol- 
.owed ? 

5. What was the effect of this transaction ? What was done by the 
pope, and what did Becket's tomb become ? 

6. What penance did Henry do for his offence ? 

7. What is said of the latter part of Henry's reign ? What occasion 
ed his wretchedness ? 

8. What part did his queen take ? ' What did his sons engage in ? 

9. What did Henry do when he found that his son John had joined 
the confederacy against him ? 

10. What is said of the character of Henry ? 

11. For what is his reign remarkable ? What is related respecting 
the arts and conveniences of life ? 

12. What is related respecting the magnificence of Becket? 

13. How did Richard I. commence his reign ? With whom did he 
unite in a crusade ? What was achieved ? 

14. What happened to him as he was returning home ? How was 
he ransomed ? 

15. What has Richard been styled, and what is said of him ? 

16. What crime is John, Richard's brother and successor, supposed 
to have committed ? What course did Philip Augustus of France take ? 
What followed ? 

• 17. What is related of Pope Innocent III. ? In what way did John 
make peace ? 

18. What was done by the barons ? What followed ? What is said 
of Magna Charta ? What other charter did the king grant ? 

19. What is said of John and his reign ? 

20. What is said of Henry III. and his reign ? 

21. What is said respecting the cause of freedom and the prosperity 
of the nation ? 

22. What was done by the barons ? What measure did the twenty 
four barons adopt ? 

23. What was the effect of this measure ? Where did Leicester 
defeat the royal army ? What did he afterwards do ? Of what was 
his summoning deputies from the principal boroughs the commence- 
ment ? 

24. What did Prince Henry perform ? What was the issue ? 

25. What did Edward I. do to the Jews ? What did he afterwards 
accomplish ? What did he create his eldest son ? 

26. What effect had the conquest of Wales on Edward ? What took 
place with regard to Scotland ? 

27. What took place in consequence of Band's renouncing his alle- 
giance ? What did Edward accomplish ? 

28. Who roused the Scots to recover their independence ? What 
was the issue ? What happened to Wallace ? Who was the second 
Scotch champion ' What further was done by Edward ? 



ENGLAND. 381 

29. What is said of Edward ? What of his reign ? What important 
clause did he add to Magna Charta ? 

30. What enterprise did Edward II. undertake ? What was the 
issue ? 

31. What is said of Edward ? How was his reign characterized ? 

32. What is said of Isabella ? What was done to the king ? 

33. Who had the chief control during the minority of Edward III. ? 
What is said of Edward on his coming of age ? What became of Mor- 
timer and Isabella ? 

34. What victory did Edward gain over the Scots? What measure 
did he adopt with regard to France ? 

35. What naval victory did he gain ? 

36. What account is given of the battle of Cressy ? For what is this 
battle memorable ? What further advantage did he gain ? 

37. What took place in England while Edward was in France ? 

38. What account is given of the battle of Poictiers ? What was 
done with king John ? 

39. What is said of Edward in the latter part of his reign? What is 
mentioned of the Black Prince and of Charles V. of France ? What 
is said of the death of the Black Prince ? 

40. What is said of Edward and his reign ? What is said of his 
wars ? 

41. What is mentioned respecting chivalry in this reign ? 

42. What is said of Richard II. ? To whom was the administration 
of the government intrusted during his minority ? What is said oi 
John of Gaunt ? 

43. What tax was imposed, and what was its effect ? What is re- 
lated respecting a tax-gatherer ? What events followed ? 

44. What account is given of the battle of Otterburn ? What ballad 
is founded on this battle ? 

45. What did Richard do respecting his cousin Henry ? How did 
Henry revenge himself? What became of the king ? 

46. Who was the true heir to the crown ? What contests followed 
this transaction ? What is said of Chaucer ? 

Section V. 

1. What is said of Henry's situation ? What account is given of 
the battle of Shrewsbury ? 

2. What was supposed respecting Henry while a subject ? How 
did he proceed after he came to the throne ? 

3. What is said of Henry and his reign ? 

4. By what was the latter part of his life imbittered ? What is re- 
lated of the Prince of Wales ? 

5. What did the king say respecting the circumstance ? 

6. What course did Henry V. take on succeeding to the throne ? 
What is said of this conduct ? 

7. What account is given of Sir John Oldcastle ? 

8. In what war did Henry engage, and what battle did he gain t 
What was the loss of the French ? What followed ? 

9. What is said of the reign and character of Henry ? 

10. At what age was Henry VI. proclaimed king of England and 
France ? To whom was his education intrusted, and who were pro- 
tectors of his dominions ? 

11. WJ.it is related of Charles VII. and his success ? 



383 ENGLAND. 

12. What is said of Henry on coming of age ? Whom did he marry ? 
What is said of her ? 

13. What is related of Jack Cade's rebellion? 

14. What is mentioned respecting the Duke of Gloucester ? What 
was the consequence of his death ? 

15. What was the origin of the houses of York and Lancaster ? How 
were the parties distinguished, and what were the wars styled ? 

16. What is related of this quarrel ? 

17. In what battles were the Lancastrians defeated ? What was done 
by the queen ? What did the son and successor of th.3 Duke of York 
accomplish ? 

Section VI. 

1. What battle took place between the two parties, soon after Ed- 
ward IV. was raised to the throne ? How many were slain ? What 
became of Henry ? 

2. What became of the queen ? What is related of her deliverance 
by a robber ? 

3. By whom had the house of York been hitherto supported ? What 
course did the Earl of Warwick take in consequence of Edward's 
offending him ? What followed ? 

4. What was the issue of the battle of Barnet ? Of Tewksbury ? 
What became of the queen and her son ? 

5. What course did Edward afterwards pursue ? What did he do 
to his brother the Duke of Clarence ? What is said of him ? 

6. Who succeeded to the throne ? What is related of Richard 
Duke of Gloucester ? What was done with the young princes ? 

7. In whom did Richard III. find an avenger? What followed? 
What was the effect of the battle of Bosworth ? 

8. What is said of the character and person of Richard ? 

Section VII. 

1. How did Henry VII. strengthen his claim to the crown ? What 
was Henry's descent ? What is said of the Tudor family ? 

2. What was the policy of Henry ? What was attempted by Lam- 
bert Simnel ? What by Perkin Warbeck ? What is said of him ? 

3. To what did the adventurers aspire ? What was the destiny of 
Simnel ? What of Perkin ? Who was executed near the same time ? 

4. What is said of the character and habits of Henry ? What did he 
accumulate by his frugality and exactions ? 

5. What is said of his reign ? What was the effect of his regula- 
tions ? 

6. What was the consequence of his permitting the nobles to alien- 
ate their lands ? What was the commencement of the English navy ? 

7. What advantages had Henry VIII. on succeeding to the throne ? 

8. What was the character which he developed ? What does Sir 
Walter Raleigh say of him ? 

9. What is said of his government ? What of his ministers ? 

10. What became of the treasures which he inherited ? What were 
the military operations of his reign ? 

11. How did he obtain the title of Defender of the Faith ? 

12. What are the most memorable transactions of his reign ? Who 
was hi? first wife ? What is said of this connection ? 



ENGLAND. 383 

13. What is related of Cardinal Wolsey in relation to this mat- 
ter? 

14. What course was taken to disannul the marriage ? What after- 
wards took place in England ? 

15. What is remarked respecting the separation of England from the 
Church of Rome ? What course did Henry now pursue ? Who were 
beheaded for refusing to acknowledge his supremacy ? 

16. What was the fate of Anne Boleyn ? Who were Henry's ether 
queens, and what was their destiny ? 

17. What three children did Henry leave ? Who succeeded him ? 
What is said of his reign ? What is said of the Reformation ? 

18. What is related of Edward ? To whom did he bequeath the 
crown ? 

19. By whom was Edward succeeded ? What is said of Mary ? 

20. What is related of Jane Grey and her husband ? 

21. What message did Jane Grey send to her husband on the day of 
her execution ? 

22. What course was taken with regard to religion ? Who were some 
of the most eminent martyrs ? What effect was produced by these 
proceedings ? 

23. To whom was Mary married ? What happened in the last year 
of her reign ? What is related respecting her death ? 

24. How was the accession of Elizabeth received ? What is said of 
her reign ? By what names was it illustrated ? 

25. What is related of the changes with respect to religion ? Of 
9,000 clergymen, how many gave up their preferments on the acces- 
sion of Elizabeth ? 

26. With what is Elizabeth charged in her treatment of Mary, Queen 
of Scots ? Who was Mary ? What had she been persuaded to do ? 

27. What had taken place at the period of Mary's return to Scot- 
land ? 

28. What is related of Mary's second and third marriages ? What 
effect did her conduct produce ? 

29. What course did Mary then take ? What was her fate ? 

30. How did Elizabeth offend Philip II. of Spain ? How did he at- 
tempt to avenge himself ? 

31. Of what did the Armada consist ? By what force and what 
commanders was it met ? What was the result ? 

32. By what eminent statesmen was Elizabeth assisted ? Who were 
her chief personal favorites ? 

33. What is said of her close of life ? To what has her unhappiness 
been ascribed ? What anecdote is related respecting Essex ? 

34. What is said of Elizabeth and her public character ? What were 
her three leading maxims of policy ? What is further said of her reign 
and character ? 

35. What is said of her private character ? 

Section VIII. 

1. Whom did Elizabeth nominate for her successor ? What title did 
James assume ? What is said of the Stuart family ? 

2. What conspiracy was formed against James ? What is related of 
Sir Walter Raleigh ? 

3. What was the design of the Gunpowder Plot ? Who was taken 
with matches in his pocket ? 



384 ENGLAND. 

4. What was James's characteristic weakness ? Who were his 
chief favorites ? 

5. When did the Puritans first make their appearance ? For what 
were they advocates ? Were their hopes realized on the accession of 
James ? What settlement did they begin ? 

6\ What was James's leading characteristic ? What was his favor- 
ite topic ? What was the best part of his character ? 

7. What is said of his private character, talents, and manners ? 
What does Bishop Burnet say of him ? 

8. What circumstances had conspired to diffuse the spirit of liberty ? 
How was the current of public opinion directed ? 

9. Under what circumstances did Charles I. ascend the throne ? 
What was the state of feeling of many of his subjects ? Of what did 
he soon give proof? Whom did he marry? 

10. Why did Charles visit Madrid ? What was the result ? Why 
was Charles offended with the parliament? What course did he 
pursue ? 

11. What taxes did he levy ? How was the tax of ship-money levied ? 
What did Charles claim ? What is said of this tax ? 

12. Who opposed this tax ? How was the cause decided ? 

13. Who were Charles's chief counsellors after the assassination of 
Buckingham ? What course did Laud pursue ? 

14. What measure did the king undertake with respect to Scotland ? 
What effect did it produce ? What took place at one of the churches 
in Edinburgh ? 

15. What success did the prelates meet with in other parts ? What 
is said of the National Covenant ? What other bond was form- 
ed ? 

16. When, after eleven years' intermission, the king convoked a par- 
liament, what measures did the house of commons adopt ? What was 
done by a parliament afterwards assembled ? 

17. How had Charles already violated the privileges of parliament ? 
Into what act of greater indiscretion was he afterwards betrayed ? 
What answer did Lenthal, the speaker, make, when the king ordered 
him to point out the five men ? 

18. How did the king then proceed? What was now the feeling of 
the parliament towards him ? 

19. By whom, in the civil war, was the cause of the king supported ? 
By whom that of the parliament ? What were the supporters of each 
styled ? 

20. What formed the characteristic of most of the leaders in parlia- 
ment ? On whom did the charge of license and excess chiefly fall ? 
What is remarked by Mr. Baxter ? 

21. How long was it since England had been but little engaged in 
war ? Who were the chief commanders in the royal army ? Who in 
the parliamentary army ? What two men were killed in an early part 
of the contest ? In what battles had the royalists the advantage ? In 
what ones were they defeated ? 

22. What happened to the king ? What measure was adopted re- 
specting him ? What sentence was passed ? 

23. What is said of Charles on this occasion, and how did he con- 
duct himself? 

24. What lesson does the fate of Charles furnish ? What is said 
of the feelings of the people respecting his execution ? What has 
been the effect of it on his reputation ? 



ENGLAND. 385 

25. What were the misfortunes of Charles's condition ? What was 
his greatest defect ? 

26. What is said of his talents, private character, and manners ? 

27. What is said of the proceedings of Charles ? What does Mr. 
Hume say respecting the Puritans ? 

28. What is said of those who opposed the king ? 

29. What measures were adopted after the death of the king ? 

30. What was done respecting episcopacy ? Who soon after gained 
the ascendency ? To what body was the power transferred from the 
parliament ? Of whom was that part of the parliament called the 
Rump, composed? 

31. What course was adopted by the parliament of Scotland? 
Where did Cromwell defeat the royalist Covenanters ? What ac- 
count is given of the battle of Worcester ? 

32. What adventures did young Charles meet with ? 

33. What is said of the Navigation Act ? Of what war was this 
act the cause ? How did this war terminate, and who took a dis- 
tinguished part in it ? 

34. How many years had the Long Parliament been in session ? 
What course did it adopt ? What did Cromwell resolve upon ? What 
did he do while in a council of officers ? 

35. What was his next proceeding ? 

36. In what manner was the Little Parliament assembled ? What is 
said of it ? 

37. What title did Cromwell assume at the dissolution of the Little 
Parliament? What is further related of him ? 

38. How did he administer the government? What is said of his 
proceedings and situation ? 

39. What is said of his talents and career ? 

40. To what did he owe his elevation? What is said of the officers 
and soldiers ? How did Cromwell manage while toiling up the ascent 
to greatness ? 

41. To what has the name of Cromwell been subjected? What is 
said of the treatment he has received from history ? Why is it so ? 

42. What is said of his private character ? 

43. What is said of Richard Cromwell ? What was done by gene- 
ral Monk ? When was Charles II. restored ? 

44. How did the nation suffer him to assume the crown ? What do 
his reign, and that of James II., exhibit ? What is said of the new king,? 

45. What change now took place ? What measures were adopted 
respecting the regicides ? What principles and doctrines came in 
vogue ? What acts were passed respecting religion ? 

46. What was done with Dunkirk ? With what nation did Charles 
engage in war ? What calamities visited London ? 

47. Why did the government become unpopular ? On whom was 
the odium cast? What were the five ministers, who conducted the 
government after Clarendon was banished, termed? 

48. What was the religion of Charles and James ? For what pur- 
pose did Charles receive a pension of Louis XIV. of France ? What 
is said of the latter part of Charles's reign ? 

49. Whose execution was occasioned by the pretended Popish Plot ? 
What is said of the Rye-House Plot ? 

50. What was the character of the court ? How was the reign 
characterized ? What is said of Charles II. ? 

51. What is said of James II. and his reign ? What course did he 

33 



386 ENGLAND. 

take on assuming the government ? Who were his counsellors, and 
what did he attempt to do ? 

52. What is related of the Duke of Monmouth ? How were those 
who favored him treated ? What is related of Jeffreys ? 

53. How did James succeed in his designs ? What act of his 
roused the general indignation ? Who was invited to England to as- 
sume the government? 

54. What followed ? What was done by the convention-parlia- 
ment ? What is this event styled ? 

55. What was now done respecting the British constitution ? What 
regulations were made respecting religion ? What are some of the 
most important articles in the declaration of the rights of the subjects ? 

56. What is related of archbishop Sancroft, &c. ■? What were they 
styled ? 

57. What course did Ireland adopt ? Where was James defeated 
by William ? What naval battle was fought ? What peace followed ? 

58. What is said of William ? What is said of Mary his queen ? 

59. Who succeeded William ? What is said of Anne ? For what 
was her reign distinguished ? 

60. What states united in an alliance against France ? Who were 
the commanders of the allied army ? What victories did the Allies 
gain ? When was the war terminated ? 

61. What is said of the constitutional union between England and 
Scotland ? 

62. When did the party names of Whigs and Tories first become 
common ? What is said of the two parties ? Who advocated the ac- 
cession of William and Mary ? What is said of the state of parties 
during the reign of Anne ? 

Section IX. 

1. Who succeeded Anne? What is said of George I. ? To what 
are some faults in his government attributed ? 

2. What change took place in the names of the two parties ? Who 
were favored by George ? What part did the Tories take ? 

3. What is related of the South-Sea Scheme ? 

4. What is said of George II. ? What is said of his partialities in 
favor of his continental dominions ? 

5. What is related of Sir Robert Walpole ? 

6. What is said of the military operations of this reign ? Who suc- 
ceeded to the dominions of Charles VI., emperor of Germany ? Who 
asserted his claim to the throne ? 

7. To what war did this give rise ? What battle did the Allies gain, 
and in what were they routed ? How was the contest decided ? 

8. What took place in Britain while George II. was on the conti- 
nent ? Where did the Pretender defeat the royal forces ? Where 
was he finally defeated ? 

9. What advantages did the British gain over the French in Ameri- 
ca ? By what were they followed ? 

10. In what circumstances did George III. commence his reign? 
How was the war with France closed ? 

11. What is said of Lord Chatham ? What was the consequence of 
the oppressive measures respecting the American Colonies ? 

12. What were the other most important events during the reign 
of George III. ? 



EUROPEAN STATES. 337 

13. What is said of the French revolution ? What course did the 
government of Great Britain take ? 

14. Who devised the system of operations ? What is said of this 
war ? What were some of the victories gained by the British ? 

15. What is said of the reign of George III. ? What was his condi- 
tion during the last ten years of his life ? What is said of George 
III. ? 

16. By whom was George ITI. succeeded ? What are some of the 
most important events of this reign ? 



EUROPEAN STATES. 

Scotland. 

1. What is said of the pretensions of Scotland to a regular success 
sion of kings from the time of Alexander the Great ? What were the 
principal tribes that anciently inhabited Scotland ? Who was the 
first king of all Scotland ? 

2. In whose reign did the most memorable contests happen between 
Scotland and the kings of England ? Who were Edward's antago- 
nists ? In what battle did Robert Bruce defeat the English ? 

3. What took place in 1603 ? What in 1706 ? 

Germany. 

1. Into what three monarchies was the Empire of the West divided 
in 843 ? What afterwards took place ? What two sovereigns govern- 
ed Germany in the 10th century ? 

2. For what is the reign of Henry IV. remarkable ? To what fac- 
tions did the election of Conrad III. give rise ? To whom were the 
Ghibelines, and to whom the Guelphs attached ? 

3. By what was the reign of Frederick Barbarossa signalized ? By 
what was the reign of Conrad IV. followed? Who was elected em- 
peror after the Great Interregnum ? 

4. What is said of the principal events in the history of the latter 
emperors of the Franconian line and those of the Swabian line ? 
What were the grounds of these contests ? 

5. What quarrel took place between Louis IV. and pope John XXII. :* 
What was determined by the Pragmatic Sanction ? 

6. For what is the reign of Sigismund memorable ? Who were 
burnt by the Council of Constance ? What was done by the adhe- 
rents of Huss and Jerome in Bohemia ? 

7. What is related of Maximilian I. ? 

8. What emperor was the most powerful sovereign of his age ? 
What is related of Charles V. ? What is said of the Reformation ? 

9. By what were the reigns of Ferdinand II. and Ferdinand III. 
signalized ? What account is given of this war ? How did it issue ? 

10. What took place on the death of Charles VI. ? How was the 
war of the Austrian Succession terminated ? 

11 . When and how did the German Empire terminate ? 

12. When was the imperial government hereditary ? How was it 
afterwards ? What was the mode of election at first ? How after- 
wards ? 



388 EUROPEAN STATES. 



Spain. 

1. By whom was Spain invaded in the 5th century? What took 
place in the 8th century. ? 

2. What was done by the Moors ? What was accomplished by 
Abderrahman in 755 ? What is said of the Moorish states ? 

3. What course did the Gothic or Christian forces pursue ? What 
does the history of Spain present ? 

4. What Christian kingdoms were formed ? How did the king- 
doms of Castile, Leon, and Arragon become united ? 

5. What is said of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella ? 

6. What is said of Spain during the reigns of Charles I. and Philip 
II. ? What has since taken place ? 

Portugal. 

1. What is related of the early history of Portugal ? 

2. How was Henry, Duke of Burgundy, rewarded for his services to 
Alphonso, king of Castile ? What did his son and successor Alphonso 
iccomplish ? 

3. For what is the reign of John I. famous ? 

4. For what were the reigns of John II. and Emanuel distinguish- 
ed ? What was done during their reigns ? What took place with 
respect to trade after the discovery of a passage to India round the 
Cape of Good Hope ? Who first shared with the Portuguese the 
navigation of the Cape ? 

5. What is said of the period from John I. to the conquest of Portu- 
gal by Philip of Spain ? 

6. What took place in 1580 ? When were the Spaniards expelled ? 

7. What is said of the discovery and colonization of Brazil ? 

8. What took place in 1827 ? What measure was adopted with 
respect to Brazil ? What happened in 1826 ? 

The Netherlands. 

1. What was the situation of the Netherlands in the Middle Ages ? 
What is said of the country in the 15th century ? 

2. To whom did Charles V. resign these provinces ? What after- 
wards took place respecting them ? 

3. What is said of the prosperity of the Dutch Provinces ? 

4. What measure was adopted in relation to the Seventeen Provinr 
ees by the congress of Vienna ? 

Poland. 

1. When and by whom was Christianity introduced into Poland ? 
When was the monarchy in its most flourishing state ? 

2- What is related of Casimir III. ? What took place in the latter 
part of the 14th century ? 

3. Under whose reign did the kingdom rise to its greatest height ? 
What took place afterwards ? 

4. By whom an<^ when was Poland conquered and partitioned ? 



EUROPEAN STATES. 3^9 



Sweden. 

1. What did Sweden and Norway anciently form ? What took 
place in the Litter part of the 14th century ? What followed ? 
2 What is related of Gustavus Vasa ? 

3. What is said of Gustavus Adolphus and his reign ? 

4. What is said of Charles XII. ? What was his career ? 

5. What is related of Gustavus IV. ? By whom was he succeeded ? 
By what has the loss of Finland been repaired ? 

Denmark. 

1. To whom did the crown of Denmark fall in 1448 ? What is said 
respecting the monarchy ? 

2. With whom was Denmark engaged in war in the beginning of 
the 18th century ? How long afterwards did the country enjoy peace ? 

3. What was the condition of the kingdom during the reigns of Chris- 
tian VI. and Frederick V. ? By what statesman was the latter assisted ? 

4. Whom did Christian VII. marry ? What is said of Matilda? 

5. By whom was Copenhagen attacked in 1801 ? What was the 
pretence for bombarding it in 1807 ? How large a fleet was surren- 
dered to the British? 

Prussia. 

1. By whom was the foundation of Prussian greatness laid ? What 
is related of his successor ? 

2. What is said of Frederick II. ? 

3. Against whom did Frederick declare war in 1756. How was the 
contest carried on, and how terminated ? What was the only gainful 
result of this sanguinary struggle ? 

4. What did Frederick afterwards do ? What is said of him ? 

5. W T hat did the king of Prussia lose by war with the French ? 
What course did he take in 1813 ? What did he gain by the treaty 
of Vienna ? 

Russia. 

1. What is said of the importance of Russia ? What is related of 
Peter the Great ? 

2. What is said of Catharine II. ? What further is related of her 
character and exploits ? 

3. By whom was Catharine succeeded ? What is said of Alexander ? 

4. By what has the reign of Nicholas been distinguished ? When 
was the war against Turkey declared ? What is related of it, and 
how did it terminate ? 

Rome. 

1. When did the temporal power of the pope commence ? When 
did it attain its zenith ? 

2. What is said of the first half of the 16th century ? What is re- 
lated of popes Julius II. and Leo X. ? What took place during the 
pontificate of the latter ? How has the power of the pope since been 
diminished ? 

33* 



WO AMERICA. 

3. What was done by Bonaparte in 1809 ? What was done by the 
congress of Vienna ? 

Turkey. 

1 . What are the Turks ? What is the first notice of them in his- 
tory ? By whom was their dominions united ? 

2. What conquest was made by Amurath ? What by Bajazet ? 
What by Mahomet II. ? 

3 How did the Turks afterwards succeed? What countries were 
conquered by Selim ? What is said of the reign and exploits of Soly 
man the Magnificent ? 

4. With whom have the Turks been engaged in war since the time 
of Sc lyman ? 

5. By what has the Turkish power been lately weakened ? 

6. When did the Greeks revolt ? What took place afterwards ? 
What was done in 1828 ? 



AMERICA. 

1. What is said of the discovery of America? What were some of 
the effects of this discovery? 

2. To whom is the world indebted for this discovery ? What is re- 
lated of Columbus ? 

3. What did he conceive was necessary in order to complete the 
balance of the terraqueous globe.'' 

4. How was th n merchandise of India conveyed to Europe before 
the passage round the Cape of Good Hope was known ? For what 
purpose did Columbus undertake his voyage of discovery ? 

5. To whom did he apply in succession for assistance ? From whom 
did he gain some favor after seven years' solicitation ? With what 
was he provided for the expedition ? What appointment did he obtain ? 

6. Fiom what place and when did he sail ? How did he proceed ? 

7. What circumstance alarmed both him and his men ? How did he 
manage ? What took place thirty days after ? How far was he com- 
pelled to yield to his crew ? 

8. When did Columbus first discover a light ? What satisfaction did 
the crew now make to Columbus ? 

9. What island was first discovered ? What islands were discover- 
ed afterwards ? Why did he name these islands the West Indies ? 

10. What did he procure before he set sail for Spain ? What hap- 
pened during the voyage ? What method did he take to preserve an 
account of his discovery ? What favorable occurrence took place ? 
Whither did he proceed ? 

11. When did Columbus discover the continent of South America? 
What was caused by his successes ? What was done to Columbus ? 
What did he say when the captain offered to release him from hj» 
fetters ? 

12. What did he afterwards do with his fetters ? 

13. What was the feeling upon Columbus' arriving thus in Spain ? 
How was he treated ? 

14. How did Columbus obtain command over the Indians in his 
foui ih voyage ? What afterwards happened to him ? What is said 
of hJp fure :al ? What inscription was engraved on his tomb ? 



THE UNITED STATES. 391 

15. By whom was Columbus deprived of the honor of giving his 
name to the continent ? What did Americus claim ? What is said 
of this act of injustice ? 

16. Who first sailed to India round the Cape of Good Hope ? What 
is said of this enterprise ? What is related of Magellan ? 

17. When and by whom was the continent of North America first 
discovered ? 

18. What land was first seen ? Which way did they proceed ? In 
what manner did they take possession of the country ? 

19. When and with what force did Cortez invade Mexico ? How 
were his men armed ? With what else was he furnished ? 

20. How was Cortez received by Montezuma ? How did Cortez re- 
quite his hospitality ? What followed ? 

21. What assistance did Cortez obtain ? What was the success of 
the Spaniards ? 

22. When did the Spaniards form a settlement at Panama ? With 
what force did Pizarro sail from this place in order to conquer Peru ? 

23. In what manner did he proceed with the inca Atabalipa ? 

24. What did Atabalipa do in order to procure his release ? To 
what did this treasure amount, and what was done with it ? What 
was then done to the inca ? 

25. How did the Spanish chiefs then proceed ? What followed ? 

26. What is said of the Peruvians and Mexicans ? What arts did 
they understand ? In what did the Peruvians excel ? What is said 
of their religion ? 

27. What was done in 1524 by Francis I. of France ? What is re- 
lated of James Cartier ? 

28. What enterprise was performed by Sir Walter Raleigh ? What 
took place on his return to England ? 

29. What englishmen made unsuccessful attempts to settle Vir- 
ginia ? 

30. By what right did Europeans take possession of the parts of 
America which they visited? How were the original inhabitants 
treated ? Who set this example ? How did he proceed ? 

31. What was done by the popes ? "What was held out as the chief 
reason for taking possession of America ? Of what was this made the 
pretext ? 

32. By what were the Spaniards stimulated ? What is said of their 
passion for gold ? To what were the Indians subjected ? 

33. To what other iniquitous practice did the discovery and settle- 
ment of America give rise ? 



THE UNITED STATES. 

Section I. 

1. To what are nations inclined to lay claim ? How is it with re- 
gard to the people of this country ? What is said of the early history 
and growth of this country ? 

2. What is said of the first settlers, and of what were they the ad- 
vocates ? What circumstances have favored their growth ? With 
whom have their political and commercial relations connected them ? 

3. In what did the colonization of this country originate ? What 
colonies were peopled by these causes ? 



892 THE UNITED STATES. 

4. What were their early condition and sufferings ? What was the 
ultimate issue ? 

5. When did the crown of England grant the charter under which 
the first effectual English settlements were made in North America ? 
What two companies were constituted ? What territories were assign- 
ed to them ? 

6. When and by whom was the first effectual attempt to form a set- 
tlement ? Where was it begun ? How was the government admin- 
istered ? 

7. Who was the first president ? Who was chosen the second year ? 
What is related of Smith ? 

8. In what contests were the colonies involved ? What provoca- 
tions had the Indians before received ? 

9. What happened to captain Smith ? Before what chief was he 
carried ? 

10. What measures were taken respecting him ? By whose influ- 
ence was he delivered ? 

11. What service did Pocahontas, two years after, perform for the 
colonists ? What is further related of her ? 

12. What diminution did the colonists suffer in a few months ? What 
did their number amount to at the end of the year ? 

13. To what sufferings were the colonists afterwards subjected ? 

14. What was the effect of this famine ? What course did those who 
survived it take ? What induced them to remain ? 

15. What was the number of colonists at the end of twelve years ? 
What addition was made in 1619 ? What is said of the planters ? 
What method was adopted for supplying them with wives ? What 
price was paid for a wife ? What was the commencement of slavery ? 

16. What plot was concerted against the colonists in 1622 ? How 
many of them were put to death ? What calamities followed the 
massacre ? What number of inhabitants did the colony contain in 
1624 ? 

17. By what other circumstances did the colony suffer ? What is 
said of Sir William Berkeley and his administration ? To what did 
the restrictions on the trade of the colony give rise ? What was the 
consequence ? 

18. What was the population in 1660 ? What was the increase in 
the 28 succeeding years ? With what views did the first adventurers 
come ? To what did they turn their attention in 1616 ? What use 
was made of tobacco ? 

19. By whom and when was Hudson's river discovered ? When 
and where were the first permanent settlements made by the Dutch ? 
What were the country and the settlement on Manhattan island 
named ? 

20. Who were the three successive Dutch governors ? To what did 
the extension of the English settlements give rise ? 

21. To whom did Charles II. of England grant the country? What 
afterwards took place ? 

22. Where did the Plymouth Company commence an unsuccess- 
ful settlement ? By whom was the name of the country changed ? 
To whom was a patent granted by king James ? Between what de- 
grees of latitude did the country granted lie ? 

23. When and by whom was the first permanent settlement begun 
in New England ? Why were they called Puritans ? Of whose con- 
gregation did they form a part ? 



THE UNITED STATES. 393 

24. To what country had they before fled ? Why did they come to 
America ? What is said of the principle of toleration at this period ? 

25. To what river did they propose to sail ? What was the first 
land that they discovered ? When did they land at Plymouth ? 

26. To what sufferings were they subjected ? 

27. What kind of government did they institute ? Who were the 
first two governors ? What articles of food did they raise ? How was 
their property for several years held ? 

28. What method did they adopt to protect themselves against the 
Indians ? What is related of Samoset ? What of Massasoit ? How 
long was the treaty made with him observed ? 

29. When and by whom was the colony of Massachusetts Bay begun ? 
By whom were Boston and other places near it first settled ? 

30. What is mentioned respecting the first settlements in New Hamp^ 
shire ? How long did they continue annexed to Massachusetts ? 

31. When and where was the colony of Connecticut commenced ? 
The colony of New Haven ? When were these united ? 

32. When, where, and by whom was the settlement of Rhode Island 
commenced ? 

33. What is said of the attention of the colonists to religion and 
learning ? How long after the first settlement of Massachusetts Bay 
was it before Harvard College was founded ? 

34. For what virtues were the colonists distinguished ? 

35. On what subjects were their views narrow ? What is related of 
their principles and habits ? 

36. In what way did the colonists get possession of the land ? How 
had the Indians been treated by Europeans ? 

37. What is related of captain Standish and of Mr. Robinson ? What 
colonies suffered little from the Indians for many years ? What is re- 
lated respecting the colony of Connecticut ? What was the issue of 
this contest ? 

38. What measure did the four colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plym- 
outh, Connecticut, and New Haven, adopt to promote their security 
and welfare ? How many delegates were elected by each ? What is 
said of this union ? 

39. What was the most destructive Indian war in which the colonies 
were ever engaged ? What is said of Philip ? 

40. What did the Indians determine to do ? What measure was 
adopted ? 

41. What was the immediate cause of war ? What next took 
place ? 

42. How were hostilities conducted ? What is the greatest battle 
called ? Where was it fought ? Who commanded the colonists ? 
What was the loss on each side ? 

43. What was the condition of the Indians after this defeat ? What 
happened to Philip ? What is said of his death ? In what wars were 
the colonists afterwards annoyed by the Indians ? 

44. To what was the English population of these colonies at this time 
computed to amount ? What losses were sustained ? How many 
buildings and towns were destroyed ? 

45. Who was the founder of Maryland ? Where did he first project 
a settlement ? From whom was the country named ? By whom was 
Lord Baltimore succeeded ? 

46. Who was appointed the first governor ? When and where did 
he begin a settlement ? What measures were pursued ? 



394 THE UNITED STATES. 

47. To whom was the country of Pennsylvania granted ? Why was 
it granted to Penn ? When and with whom did he arrive ? 

48. What did he make the basis of his institutions ? How did he 
manage in his intercourse with the Indians ? 

49. How long were the treaties preserved inviolate ? 

50. What is said of the prosperity of this colony ? What induce- 
ments were held out to settlers ? 

51. What were the first civil communities in which the free tolera- 
tion of religion was recognised ? 

Section II. 

1. What sovereigns had hitherto occupied the throne of England 
since the commencement of the colonies ? What was the effect of their 
principles ? With what were the colonies alarmed ? 

2. What was done by Edward Randolph in order to destroy the 
liberties of New England ? 

3. Who was appointed by James II. governor of New England ? 
What measure did Sir Edmund Andros adopt ? What was done with 
the charters ? How did Sir Edmund then proceed ? 

4. What took place in England at this time ? How was the news 
of the Revolution of 1688 received in this country ? What measures 
were adopted by the colonies ? 

5. What was done with regard to the colonies of Massachusetts 
Bay and Plymouth ? 

6. How were the magistrates under the old charter elected ? What 
change was made by the new charter ? Who was appointed the first 
governor ? 

7. To what evils did the Revolution in England subject the colo- 
nies ? How long did the war during the reign of William last? How 
long did that during the reign of Anne continue ? 

8. How much of the time, for 25 years preceding the peace of 
Utrecht, had the country been exempted from war ? What number 
of the inhabitants were in actual service ? What was the condition 
of the rest ? What was the state of the country ? 

9. How many young men, belonging to New England and New 
York, are supposed to have been lost in the public service ? 

10. When did another war break out between Great Britain and 
France ? By what was this war rendered memorable in America ? 
What is said of Louisburg ? 

11. How many troops had general Pepperell ? By whom was he 
joined ? What was the issue ? 

12. What effect did the news of this achievement of the colonies, 
have on the government of France ? What armament was sent by 
the French to America ? What was the object of it ? 

13. What disasters happened to this fleet ? 

14. What became of the ships that remained? What was done with 
Louisburg at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ? 

35. Who claimed the country watered by the Mississippi and its trib- 
utaries ? What measures did the French take with regard to it, in the 
succeeding period of peace ? 

16. What grant was obtained by the Ohio Company ? What course 
did the French take with respect to the traders ? 

17. What measures were adopted by the Company and by the colony 
of Virginia ? Who was sent to the French commandant ? 



THE UNITED STATES. 395 

18. What course was taken by the British government? What war- 
like preparations were made ? 

19. On what expedition was general Braddock sent ? What did his 
force amount to ? What is said of Braddock and his fate ? What loss 
was sustained ? What is related of Washington ? 

20. By whom and where was general Johnson met in his expedition 
against Crown Point ? What was the issue ? What is said of the 
expedition against Niagara and Fort Frontinac ? 

21. How long was the war carried on before a formal declaration 
was made ? Who succeeded Dieskau ? Who had the chief command 
of the English troops ? What is said of the commanders, and of the 
campaign ? By whose means was a favorable change effected ? 

22. What measure was pursued by Mr. Pitt ? What number of men 
was brought into the service ? What three expeditions were resolv- 
ed on ? 

23. What forces and what commanders were sent against Louisburg ? 
What was the issue ? 

24. What was the result of the attack on Ticonderoga by Abercrom- 
bie ? What was done by colonel Bradstreet and general Forbes ? 

25. To whom was the chief command given after the disaster at Ti- 
conderoga ? What was the object of the campaign of 1759 ? What 
three divisions were now made of the British army ? 

26. What was the success of the expeditions against Ticonderoga, 
Crown Point, and Niagara ? 

27. To whom was the expedition against Quebec intrusted ? What 
is said of this place ? What effect had the difficulties of the enter- 
prise on the English general ? With what force did he approach the 
city ? 

28. What enterprise did he accomplish during the night ? What was 
the ispue of the battle that followed ? 

29. What is related of Wolfe on his viewing the engagement, after 
he had received a fatal wound ? What is said of Montcalm ? 

30. By what was this battle followed ? What was done by the 
peace of Paris in 1763 ? How did the success of this war affect the 
colonies ? 

Section III. 

1. What is said of the colonists? Why did emigrants leave Eng- 
land ? How did they regard the parent country ? 

2. What was their condition at the peace of 1763 ? 

3. What troubles assailed them after the conquest of Canada had 
freed them from the hostilities of the French and Indians ? 

4. What had been the effect of the war which Great Britain had 
carried on in defence of her American possessions ? What was the 
pretext for taxing the colonies ? 

5. What was maintained respecting this matter by the colonies ? 
What did they maintain was a right of British subjects ? 

6. What measures were adopted by parliament in 1764 ? How 
were these proceedings regarded by the colonies ? 

7. What act was passed the next year ? On what did the Stamp 
Act lay a duty ? What was done by the assembly of Virginia? What 
by Massachusetts ? 

8. What took place in Boston when the news of the Stamp Act ar- 
rived ? What in New York ? What was done by the merchants ? 



396 THE UNITED STATES, 

9. Wheii and where did a colonial congress meet ? "What measure 
did this congress adopt? What was done by the merchants ? What 
was the issue respecting the Stamp Act ? What was done by parlia- 
ment after a change in the British cabinet ? 

10. What act was passed by parliament in 1767 ? What was done 
to render the act effectual ? What was another arbitrary measure of 
parliament ? 

11. What were now the feelings of the Americans? What affray 
took place on the 5th of March ? How was the funeral of the deceas- 
ed conducted ? What was the result of the trial of captain Preston 
and his soldiers ? 

12. Who was appointed prime minister of England in 1770 ? What 
did the British ministry intend to do by retaining the duty of three 
pence on tea ? What were the Americans determined to do ? What 
is said of the years 1771 and 1772 ? What did the inhabitants of New 
York do with the tea ships ? What was done at Boston ? 

13. What place was considered the chief seat of rebellion ? What 
was the act called the Boston Port Bill ? What was its effect ? 

14. With what authority did general Gage arrive in Boston ? What 
soon followed ? 

15. What measures were adopted in Massachusetts to prepare for 
the contest ? 

16. What was done by the general court of Massachusetts ? 

17. When and where did the Continental Congress meet ? Of 
whom was this congress composed ? What measures did they adopt? 

18. What is said of the power of Great Britain ? What was the 
condition of the Colonies ? By what were their operations especially 
embarrassed ? How was their resolution to engage in the contest re- 
garded in England ? 

19. What was done when the proceedings of the congress were laid 
before parliament ? To what number was the British army increased ? 

20. What was the purport of lord North's conciliatory proposition ? 
What was the design of it ? How was it received ? 

21. For what object did general Gage send a party of troops to Sa- 
lem ? Who were sent to seize the military stores at Concord ? What 
account is given of the affair at Lexington ? 

22. What was done by the British troops after having dispersed the 
militia at Lexington ? What took place on their return ? 

23. What was now done by the Americans ? What two important 
posts were secured ? 

24. What was done by the provincial congress of Massachusetts ? 

25. When and, where did the second continental congress meet ? 
What did they recommend ? 

26. What generals arrived with British troops ? What measure was 
now adopted ? Who were excepted from the offer of pardon ? 

27. For what purpose was colonel Prescott ordered to throw up a 
breastwork on Bunker Hill ? How far had the work proceeded be- 
fore it was discovered ? 

28. With what force did general Howe make an attack on the 
works ? What is said of the defence of the Americans ? What losses 
were sustained on each side ? What was done by the British while 
their troops were advancing ? 

29. What measures were now adopted by congress ? Who was 
chosen commander in chief of the American army ? What is said of 
Wash : ngton ? Where did he establish his head-quarters ? 



THE UNITED STATES. 397 

30. Who were sent on an expedition to Canada ? On whom did the 
chief command devolve ? 

31. What was accomplished by Arnold ? What was the issue of 
the attack on Quebec ? 

32. What took place in Virginia during these operations in the 
north ? What was done by lord Dunmore ? 

33. From what other states were the royal governors expelled ? 
What were the adherents of Great Britain called ? What is said of 
them ? By whom was general Gage succeeded ? 

34. What is said of the American army investing Boston ? What 
did Washington resolve to do in the latter part of the winter ? What 
measures were adopted ? 

35. What prevented Howe from attacking the works ? What took 
place ? 

36. What was the effect produced in England by the news of the 
battle of Bunker Hill ? What measures did the ministry adopt ? To 
what did the force destined to America amount ? 

37. What had hitherto been the object of the controversy ? What 
did the colonies now begin to think of doing? What publication 
contributed to bring about a great change in the public mind ? By 
whom was the motion in congress made for declaring the colonies free 
and independent ? Of whom did the committee for preparing the 
Declaration consist ? How and when was the vote carried ? 

38. How does the Declaration conclude ? 

Section IV. 

1. What was the issue of the attack made by the British under Sir 
Peter Parker on Sullivan's Island ? 

2. Whither did Sir William Howe sail on evacuating Boston? 
Whither did Washington soon after remove his army ? What British 
commanders arrived near New York in June ? What forces were now 
collected on each side ? 

3. What attempts were made by lord Howe and general Howe to 
bring about an accommodation ? To what did it appear that Great 
Britain still held ? What did Washington say to the offer of pardon ? 

4. Where did an engagement take place ? By whom were the 
Americans commanded ? What were the issue and the losses ? How 
was the retreat of the Americans effected ? 

5. What was Washington's next movement ? What fort was re- 
duced by Howe ? Of what were the British now possessed ? 

6. What retreat did Washington now make ? What was now done 
by the British troops ? 

7. What was now the aspect of American affairs, and the state of 
the army ? What other misfortunes had occurred ? How large an 
army had Washington? What else took place unfavorable to the 
American cause ? 

8. What account is given of Washington's attack on Trenton f 
What was his next exploit ? What was the effect of these measures? 

9. What measures did congress adopt at this period ? 

10. What was done by general Howe in March and April of 1777? 

11. Of what did the American army now consist ? What measure 
was adopted by Howe ? What movement was made by Washington ? 
What battle followed ? What were the losses ? 

12. What was done by Howe after this battle ? What account k 

34 



398 THE UNITED STATES. 

given of the battle of Germantown ? What was then done by the 
British army ? 

13. Who invaded the States through Canada ? What advantages 
did general Burgoyne gain ? 

14. For what purpose did he send a detachment to Bennington? 
What was the issue ? What took place on the Mohawk ? 

15. Where did Burgoyne encamp with his forces ? Who had now 
the command of the American army in the north ? What losses were 
sustained in the battle of Stillwater ? How was the British army soon 
after situated ? 

16. What did Burgoyne do in this exigency ? What measure was 
he next compelled to adopt ? What number was surrendered ? 

17. What was the effect of the surrender of Burgoyne ? Who had 
been sent, in 1776, to France, to solicit assistance ? What was their 
success ? What was done after the surrender of Burgoyne ? 

18. How were the British ministry affected by these events ? What 
measures were adopted ? What was the issue ? 

19. Who succeeded general Howe as commander in chief of the 
British army ? What did the British now determine to do ? What 
events followed ? 

20. How large was the French fleet under Count d'Estaign ? What 
plan was now concerted ? What account is given of the engagement 
on Rhode Island ? What was done by the French fleet ? What town 
was taken by the British in December ? 

21. What change was made in the theatre of the war in 1779.'' 
What is said of the operations ? By what were the exertions of the 
Americans enfeebled ? 

22. What was done by Collier and Matthews ? What by Tryon ? 

23. What account is given of the achievement of general Wayne ? 
Of general Lovell ? Of general Sullivan ? 

24. Who had now the command of the American army in the south ? 
What took place at Briar Creek ? What was the issue of the attack 
made on the English in Savannah ? 

25. What state was the principal theatre of the war in 1780 ? What 
account is given of the siege of Charleston by Clinton ? Who was 
left to command the British troops in the south ? 

26. What measures were taken to secure the obedience of the inte- 
rior country to the British ? What events took place ? 

27. Who now took the command of the southern American army 
in place of general Lincoln ? What account is given of the battle of 
Camden ? 

28. What French fleet and army arrived ? What is said of them ? 

29. What treacherous plot did general Arnold form ? What facts 
are related respecting Arnold ? How was his design frustrated ? 

30. What is said of major Andre ? What became of Arnold ? 

31. What is said of the operations of the war in 1781 ? What was 
done by Arnold ? 

32. Who was now appointed to the southern American army? 
What is related respecting the battle of the Cow-Pens ? 

33. What account is given of the battle near Guildford court-house ? 
What took place at Camden ? What account is given of the battle 
of Eutaw Springs ? 

34. What course did Cornwallis take after the battle of Guildford ? 
Where did he encamp and fortify himself? 

35. What measure had been concerted by the American officer* I 



THE UNITED STATES. 399 

On whom was it finally resolved to make an attack ? How was Sir 
Henry Clinton prevented from sending assistance to Cornwallis ? 

36. What course did Washington now pursue ? 

37. What measure was adopted by Clinton ? What was done in 
Connecticut ? 

38. What good news did Washington hear at Chester ? What was 
the issue of the engagement between the English and French fleets ? 
To what did Washington's force now amount ? 

39. What was the effect of the attack of the Americans on the Brit- 
ish army ? When did Cornwallis propose a cessation of hostilities ? 
What was the number of prisoners that surrendered ? 

40. How was the news of this surrender received ? What expres- 
sions of gratitude were made by the army and by congress ? 

41. What is said of the subsequent military operations? What 
changes were made in the British cabinet and in the command of the 
British army ? When were provisional articles of peace signed ? 
When, where, and by whom was the definitive treaty of peace con- 
cluded ? 

42. What did this war cost Great Britain ? 

Section V. 

1. What difficulties arose when the American army was about to 
be disbanded ? To what expedient had congress been driven ? How 
had the army been paid, and what was their condition ? 

2. Why had the officers remained quiet, and why were they now 
alarmed ? What took place with regard to that portion stationed at 
Newburg ? 

3. What did Washington do at this crisis ? 

4. What, effect had this speech upon the officers ? What measures 
did congress adopt ? 

5. In what manner did Washington resign his command ? 

6. After the return of peace, how was the government under the 
Articles of Confederation found ? What was the state of the paper 
currency ? 

7. In what proportion to their nominal value were the army notes 
sold ? Who were the sufferers by this depreciation ? 

8. When and where did commissioners meet to form a system of 
commercial regulations ? What measure did they adopt ? 

9. When did the delegates meet at Philadelphia ? When was the 
constitution unanimously agreed to by them ? What measure was 
then taken respecting it ? When was it ratified by eleven of the 
states ? By what states was it not at first adopted ? 

10. Who was unanimously chosen first president ? What is said 
of his journey to New York ? 

11. When was he inaugurated ? What is said of the ceremony? 

12. How was the nation affected by this event ? What is said of his 
qualifications ? Who was elected vice-president ? Who were the other 
principal officers ? 

13. What beneficial effects were soon felt ? 

14. Over whom did the Indians north of the Ohio obtain victories in 
1790 and 1791 ? Who routed them, and negotiated a treaty at Green- 
ville ? 

15. In what other difficulties were the United States now involved ? 



400 THE UNITED STATES. 

What were the feelings of a large portion of the community ? What 
was the policy of Washington's administration ? 

16. What did Washington do near the end of the second term of his 
administration ? By whom was he succeeded ? 

17. What course was pursued by the French revolutionary govern- 
ment ? How did the American government act ? What soon after 
took place ? 

18. What particulars are mentioned respecting Washington's death ? 
What effect was produced by the news ? How was his death noticed 
throughout the country ? 

19. What parties arose at the time of the adoption of the federal -con- 
stitution ? How were they afterwards generally designated ? How 
did these parties differ ? What is said of the treaty negotiated by 
Mr. Jay ? 

20. What measures of Mr. Adams's administration excited most dis- 
satisfaction ? What change took place in 1801 ? 

Section VI. 

1. What was the state of the country during the first term of Mr. 
Jefferson's official career ? How had America managed with respect 
to the two belligerent powers of Europe ? 

2. What measure did the British government adopt in 1806 ? What 
did the French Berlin Decree declare ? What was the effect of the 
British Orders in Council ? What was the import of Bonaparte's 
Milan Decree ? 

3. What measure was recommended by Mr. Jefferson, and adopted 
by congress ? What was substituted in its stead ? 

4. What was the condition of the trade of the United States? 

5. What species of injury did the United States suffer exclusively 
from Britain ? What is said on this subject ? 

6. What complaint did the British make ? What is said of this 
practice ? 

7. To what vessels had the custom of searching for British seamen 
been confined ? What account is given of the attack on the American 
frigate the Chesapeake ? 

8. How was this outrage regarded ? What measures were adopted ? 

9. By whom was Mr. Jefferson succeeded ? What took place at the 
commencement of Mr. Madison's administration ? What is related 
of Mr. Jackson ? Between what vessels of war did a rencounter take 
place ? 

10. Under what circumstances did congress meet in May, 1812 ? 
What did Mr. Madison state as the principal grounds of war ? 

11. How was the bill passed? What took place five days after the 
declaration ? 

12. On what ground did the minority oppose the war ? How was ifc 
with the people ? 

13. Under what circumstances was the war commenced ? 

14. What is related respecting general Hull's invasion of Canada ? 
What is said of general Van Rensselaer's attempt ? 

15. What is said of the success of the Americans on the ocean ? 
What naval victories were gained ? 

16. By whom was general Winchester defeated ? What became of 
about 500 prisoners ? 

17 What is related of general Pike ? What of colonel Dudley ? 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 40! 

18. By whom were the British repulsed at Sackett's Harbor ? By 
whom was Fort George in Canada taken ? 

19. What is related of Perry's achievement on Lake Erie ? 

20. By whom was general Proctor defeated near the Thames ? 

21. What is said of the preparations against Canada under Wilkinson 
and Hampton ? What villages were burnt ? What is related of admi- 
ral Cockburn? 

22. What naval engagements took place this year ? 

23. What is said of the campaign of 1814 ? What is related of the 
battle of Chippewa ? What of the battle of Bridge water ? 

24. With how large an army did Sir George Prevost advance to 
Plattsburg ? Who commanded the British naval force on Lake Cham- 
plain ? By whom was Downie defeated ? By whom was Sir George 
Prevost repulsed ? What were the losses ? 

25. How numerous an army under general Ross landed in the Pa- 
tuxent ? What was accomplished by them ? By whom was an attempt 
made on Baltimore ? What was the issue ? 

26. What naval operations took place ? 

27. What is said respecting the connection of this war with that 
which had been raging in Europe ? When and where was a treaty of 
peace signed ? 

23. What was done by the British while this negotiation was in prog- 
ress ? By whom were the British repulsed ? What losses were 
sustained ? 

29. What prevented further hostilities ? 

30. What is remarked respecting the treaty of Ghent ? 

31. What is rendered evident with regard to Great Britain and the 
United States ? 

32. By whom was Mr. Madison succeeded ? Who followed Mr. 
Monroe ? 

33. What is related respecting the deaths of Adams and Jefferson ? 

34. What facts are mentioned respecting their history? 

35. Who succeeded Mr. Adams as president ? 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 
Section I. 

1. What is Ecclesiastical History? Into how many divisions may 
it be distinguished ? 

2. What period does the first division embrace ? What is said of 
this period ? What was the state of Christianity ? 

3. What does the second division comprise ? What is said of it ? 

4. What period is embraced by the third division? What is said 
of it? 

5. What period does the fourth division include ? By what has the 
progress of the Reformation been accompanied ? 

6. When and where was our Savior born ? What is said of the time 
of his birth ? 

7. What expectation prevailed at this time ? What did the Jewe 
expect their Messiah to be ? 

34* 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

8. Into what three sects were the Jews now divided ? What is said 
of the Essenes ? 

9. What account is given of the Sadducees ? 

10. What is related of the Pharisees and their principles ? 

11. What was the manner of our Savior's appearance ? Whom did 
he choose for his disciples, and with what did he endue them ? 

12. What was the success of the apostles in christianizing the world ? 

13. What circumstances make the rapid progress of Christianity ap- 
pear extraordinary ? 

14 How is this success to be accounted for ? What miracles did the 
apostles perform ? 

15. In what parts of the world did they propagate Christianity ? 

16. How were the Christians and apostles treated by the Roman govern- 
ment ? How many persecutions were there ? What is related of the first ? 

17. What is mentioned of Trajan ? What account does Pliny give 
of his practice respecting the Christians ? 

18. What testimony does Pliny give in favor of the Christians ? 

19. What were some of the varieties of suffering to which the Chris- 
tians were subjected ? 

20. What was the effect of persecution ? When did Christianity be- 
come the religion of the Roman Empire ? 

21 . What was its condition from that time ? 

Section II. 

1. What change now took place with regard to Christianity? What 
is said of the clergy ? In what other way was Christianity corrupted ? 

2. What heresies date from the apostolic age ? What was the most 
important division that took place in the church ? 

3. Who was the principal antagonist of Arius ? What council was 
called to settle this controversy ? What is related of the council of 
Constance ? 

4. What is said of the subsequent state of the controversy ? 

5. What views were introduced respecting the Christian life ? 

6. What is related of Simon Stylites ? 

7. When was the origin of monastic life ? What is said of the insti- 
tutions of monastic life ? 

8. What was the order established in the primitive church ? What 
did the bishop of Rome obtain ? 

9. What was maintained in order to strengthen his authority ? 
When did he declare himself head of the universal church ? What 
was the cause of the separation of the Greek church ? 

10. When and by whom was the pope raised to the rank of a temporal 
prince ? 

11. What did he afterwards assume ? 

Section III. 

1. What is said respecting the state of Christianity and learning in 
the third period ? 

2. What are the prominent objects of attention during these ages? 

3. What is related respecting the passion for relics ? 

4. What is said of monastic institutions and monastic life ? What 
is mentioned respecting the monasteries ? 

5. What service was performed by the monasteries ? 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 403 

6. In what centuries did the passion for pilgrimage most prevail ? 

7. When did an opinion prevail that the day of judgment was ap- 
proaching ? What took place in consequence of it ? 

8. When was the doctrine of transubstantiation established ? 

9. What is said respecting the doctrine of purgatory, and what was 
done for souls in this state ? 

10. What is said of the doctrines of absolution and indulgences ? 
What of the sale of indulgences ? 

11. What is related respecting the authority of the pope ? To what 
was a kingdom liable, whose sovereign had offended the pope ? 

12. When did the dominion of the church attain its zenith ? What 
is related of Gregory VII. ? 

13. What is said of the secular clergy ? What is mentioned respect- 
ing the scarcity of copies of the Scriptures ? 

14. What is said respecting the public discourses of the clergy ? 
What was regarded as the sum of religious duty ? 

15. What is said of the state of learning ? What was the most cele- 
brated controversy among the schoolmen ? 

Section IV. 

1. What is said of the reformation ? Who, before this event, had 
dissented from the church of Rome ? 

2. What is related of John Wickliffe ? 

3. What is said of John Huss and Jerome of Prague ? 

4. What circumstances favored the progress of the new doctrines ? 

5. What was done by Tetzel in 1517 ? What is related of pope 
Leo X. ? What was promised to the purchasers of indulgences ? 

6. Who has the honor of having made the first effectual stand 
against this traffic ? What is said of Luther ? 

7. How did the pope proceed against Luther ? To what dogma 
was he required to give his assent ? 

8. What course did Luther take ? What bull was issued against 
him by the pope ? 

9. What effect had it on the reformer, and what did he do with it ? 

10. What friends were found to the new opinions ? 

11. What account is given of the origin of the name of Protestants ? 

12. What was done respecting the Scriptures ? What is related of 
Melancthon ? 

13. To what countries did the Reformation soon extend ? By whom 
was it established in Geneva and the Swiss cantons ? Where else did 
it find friends ? How was it introduced into England ? By whose la» 
bors was it established in Scotland ? 

14. What is said of the Reformers ? 

15. Who continued to adhere to the church of Rome f 

16. What is related respecting the court and church of Rome since 
the Reformation ? 



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